Cottonseed (Hybrid)

Table of Contents

Child labor and forced child labor have been documented in the Indian hybrid cottonseed industry. Some of the risk, particularly of child labor, has been linked to the delicate and intricate nature of the production process, particularly cross pollination, which makes the use of smaller hands desirable.¹ Since the nature of risk in the cottonseed industry is specific to the production node, traceability methods that can support due diligence at the farm level should be used. For larger farms, this might include identity preservation, while for smaller farms, a mid-tier gatekeeper approach or other systems that include mixing are likely to be more feasible.
Indian landownership laws prohibit individuals and companies from owning large swaths of land, meaning that the hybrid cottonseed industry is dominated by numerous small-scale farmers, which may hinder segregated traceability efforts.²
Middlemen sell the hybrid cottonseed to large multinational companies which complicates the supply chain.³ Implementing thorough record keeping requirements for middlemen, like organizers and representatives, can help clarify cottonseed origins for all producers involved in a given batch of seed sold. Efforts to trace cotton up to the cottonseed supply chain will need thorough supply chain mapping to increase the visibility of participating actors.
The hybrid cottonseed is often processed within the same country where it is produced via processes such as ginning.⁴

Forced Labor or Trafficking in Persons cited by U.S. Government

Child Labor cited by U.S. Government

Risk of Forced Labor or Trafficking in Persons cited by other source

Risk of Child Labor cited by other source

Documented presence of migrant workers

Documented presence of other vulnerable workers

Documented presence or significant likelihood of third-party labor recruiters

The U.S. Department of Labor reports the presence of forced labor in the production of hybrid cottonseed in India.⁵
The U.S. Department of Labor identifies child labor in the production of hybrid cottonseed in India.⁶
The risk of forced labor in the production of hybrid cottonseed is reported by other sources in the form of debt bondage. Debt bondage involving advanced loans that are paid to the children’s parents often bind the children to their employer until the work is complete.⁷ Debt bondage is also common in the practice of wage sharecropping in the Indian region of Gujarat, where tenant farmers are paid an advance and end up indebted to the landowner.⁸
The risk of child labor has been cited by multiple other sources. Children are associated with the manual hybridization of the cottonseed because it is very delicate work and small hands are an advantage to avoid damaging the stigma, style, or ovary of the seed.⁹ Child laborers working in the production of hybrid cottonseed are at risk of hazardous work due to their exposure to pesticides in the cottonseed fields.¹⁰
There is a documented presence of migrant workers in the production of hybrid cottonseed. In Gujarat, India, the practise of wage sharecropping colloquially known as “bhag-kheti” relies heavily on migrant labor.¹¹ Similarly, children aged 9 to 14 migrate to the cotton fields in Andhra Pradesh for two to three months every year where seed production is highly concentrated and there is insufficient local labor.¹²
The manual hybridization of cottonseed is often carried out by young girls in India.¹³ Tenants in sharecropping arrangements are also vulnerable as they are paid advances and are then required to work an entire year without regular payment of wages, an indicator of debt bondage.¹⁴
There is a documented presence of third-party labor recruiters in the recruitment of child labor for the hybridization process. The labor recruiters mediate between the farmers and the children’s parents to organize the labor.¹⁵

Large numbers of dispersed, unorganized, or informal small producers or other worksites

Multiple points of aggregation, co-mingling, and/or transformation across supply chain

Complex/opaque supply chains and/or lack of vertical integration

High degree of flexibility in procurement practices of downstream entities

There are many small and informal producers of hybrid cottonseed, particularly in India. There has been a proliferation of multinational seed companies (MNC) operating in India that produce and market hybrid cottonseed.¹⁶ However, these MNCs are reliant on a large number of small local seed farmers because Indian landownership laws do not allow individuals or companies to own large areas of land.¹⁷
There are multiple points of transformation of the hybrid cottonseed across the supply chain. Once the seed cotton is obtained, the seed goes through the ginning process to separate the seed from the cotton lint.¹⁸
The supply chain for hybrid cottonseed is opaque and complex due to the existence of multiple actors, especially ‘seed organizers,’ that mediate between companies and the small seed farmers, and the cotton traders that sell the cotton seed and lint on to the ginners.¹⁹ The multinational companies typically have no contact with the local farmers that produce the seed; rather, they operate via the third party ‘seed organisers,’ making the agricultural origins of the hybrid cottonseed harder to trace.²⁰
There is a high degree of flexibility in procurement practices due to the large number of small hybrid cottonseed producers in India. MNCs have contracts with seed organizers that specify the volume of seed required, but there is no direct contractual relationship between farmers and the MNC.

Scale or nature of risk varies significantly based on geographic area of production

Scale or nature of risk is strongly associated with certain types of suppliers/entities

Scale or nature of risk is present across multiple tiers or nodes of supply chain (including in associated downstream or upstream goods)

The risk of child and forced labor in cottonseed production is only reported in India.²¹ Reports suggest that there are high numbers of child laborers in the production of hybrid cottonseed in the Indian region of Andhra Pradesh.²²
The risk of child and forced labor is associated with small seed farmers who produce the hybrid cottonseed for larger multinational companies.²³

Cottonseed companies provide the genetic material for seed production to cottonseed farmers and labourers.²⁴

The production stage of hybrid cottonseed has three steps: emasculation; cross parenting (pollination); and picking. The first step is the emasculation of the female parent, which can be undertaken using a variety of methods depending on the flower type. This is a highly skilled and labor-intensive process. Secondly, the parent plants are crossed during the process of pollination of the emasculated buds. Thirdly, the completely opened bolls are picked, cleaned, and stored.²⁵ This entire cross-pollination process takes place manually at the farm level.²⁶

The cottonseed companies then buy back these hybrid and genetically modified seeds from the farmers and sell them on to the cotton farmers. It is the cottonseed companies that set the prices of the cottonseed, rather than the government, and some companies claim to not charge the farmers for the seeds. Following the production and picking of the cotton lint and seeds on the farm, the cotton is sold to traders and then to the ginners to be used throughout the cotton supply chain.²⁷

Hybrid seed production

Ginning

Retail

Agriculture

Hybrid cottonseed produces cotton, which is an input in a variety of cotton goods.

Textiles Apparel and Luxury Goods

Cotton from hybrid cottonseed can be used to produce thread and yarn with a higher degree of fiber quality, which is then used to manufacture garments and other cotton goods.

Cotton seeds for sowing

Cotton seeds (excluding for sowing)

India³⁰
China
Brazil
United States of America
Pakistan
Uzbekistan
Greece
Turkey
Argentina
Benin

For more information on child labor risk in cottonseed production, see Cotton’s Forgotten Children: Child Labour and Below Minimum Wages in Hybrid Cottonseed Production in India.

1
Child Labour in Cotton: A briefing. International Labour Organization, 2016, www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type=document&id=29655.
2
Venkateswarlu, Davuluri. Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Committee of the Netherlands, 2003, www.indianet.nl/cotseed.html#contents.
3
Venkateswarlu, Davuluri. Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Committee of the Netherlands, 2003, www.indianet.nl/cotseed.html#contents.
4
Child Labour in Cotton: A briefing. International Labour Organization, 2016, www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type=document&id=29655.
5
List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 28 September 2022, https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5778&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.
6
List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 28 September 2022, https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5778&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.
7
Venkateswarlu, Davuluri. Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Committee of the Netherlands, 2003, www.indianet.nl/cotseed.html#contents.
8
Seeds of Oppression. ARISA and Centre for Labour Research and Action (CLRA), July 2021, https://arisa.nl/wp-content/uploads/SeedsOfOppression.pdf.
9
Child Labour in Cotton: A briefing. International Labour Organization, 2016, www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type=document&id=29655.
10
Venkateswarlu, Davuluri. Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Committee of the Netherlands, 2003, www.indianet.nl/cotseed.html#contents.
11
Seeds of Oppression. ARISA and Centre for Labour Research and Action (CLRA), July 2021, https://arisa.nl/wp-content/uploads/SeedsOfOppression.pdf.
12
The Children Behind Our Cotton. Environmental Justice Foundation, 2007, ejfoundation.org/resources/downloads/The-Children-behind-Our-Cotton-FINAL_small.pdf; Venkateswarlu, Davuluri. Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Committee of the Netherlands, 2003, www.indianet.nl/cotseed.html#contents.
13
The Children Behind Our Cotton, Environmental Justice Foundation, 2007, ejfoundation.org/resources/downloads/The-Children-behind-Our-Cotton-FINAL_small.pdf; Venkateswarlu, Davuluri. Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Committee of the Netherlands, 2003, www.indianet.nl/cotseed.html#contents.
14
Seeds of Oppression. ARISA and Centre for Labour Research and Action (CLRA), July 2021, https://arisa.nl/wp-content/uploads/SeedsOfOppression.pdf.
15
Venkateswarlu, Davuluri. Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Committee of the Netherlands, 2003, www.indianet.nl/cotseed.html#contents.
16
Venkateswarlu, Davuluri. Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Committee of the Netherlands, 2003, www.indianet.nl/cotseed.html#contents.
17
Venkateswarlu, Davuluri. Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Committee of the Netherlands, 2003, www.indianet.nl/cotseed.html#contents.
18
Child Labour in Cotton: A briefing. International Labour Organization, 2016, www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type=document&id=29655.
19
Venkateswarlu, Davuluri. Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Committee of the Netherlands, 2003, www.indianet.nl/cotseed.html#contents; Seeds of Oppression. ARISA and Centre for Labour Research and Action (CLRA), July 2021, arisa.nl/wp-content/uploads/SeedsOfOppression.pdf.
20
Venkateswarlu, Davuluri. Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Committee of the Netherlands, 2003, www.indianet.nl/cotseed.html#contents; Seeds of Oppression. ARISA and Centre for Labour Research and Action (CLRA), July 2021, https://arisa.nl/wp-content/uploads/SeedsOfOppression.pdf.
21
Child Labour in Cotton: A briefing. International Labour Organization, 2016, www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type=document&id=29655.
22
The Children Behind Our Cotton. Environmental Justice Foundation, 2007, ejfoundation.org/resources/downloads/The-Children-behind-Our-Cotton-FINAL_small.pdf.
23
Venkateswarlu, Davuluri. Child Labour and Trans-National Seed Companies in Hybrid Cotton Seed Production in Andhra Pradesh. Indian Committee of the Netherlands, 2003, www.indianet.nl/cotseed.html#contents.
24
Seeds of Oppression. ARISA and Centre for Labour Research and Action (CLRA), July 2021, https://arisa.nl/wp-content/uploads/SeedsOfOppression.pdf.
25
Santhy, V., et al. “Hybrid seed production in cotton.” Central Institute for Cotton Research Nagpur, 2008, static.vikaspedia.in/media/files_en/agriculture/crop-production/package-of-practices/hybrid-cotton-seed-production.
26
Child Labour in Cotton: A briefing. International Labour Organization, 2016, www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type=document&id=29655.
27
Seeds of Oppression. ARISA and Centre for Labour Research and Action (CLRA), July 2021, https://arisa.nl/wp-content/uploads/SeedsOfOppression.pdf.
28
List of exporters for the selected product in 2021 Product : 120721 Cotton seeds for sowing, ITC Trade Map, www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c120721%7c%7c%7c6%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c%7c2%7c1%7c%7c1.
29
List of exporters for the selected product in 2021 Product : 120729 Cotton seeds (excluding for sowing), ITC Trade Map, www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c120729%7c%7c%7c6%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1.
30
Crops and livestock products. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL.

Funding is provided by the United States Department of Labor under cooperative agreement number IL‐35805. 100 percent of the total costs of the project or program is financed with federal funds, for a total of USD 4,000,000. This material does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United States Department of Labor, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the United States Government

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Cottonseed (Hybrid)

Supply Chain Characteristics that Impact Traceability

Traceability Takeaways

Nature of Labor Rights Risk/Vulnerable Workers

Features of Production and Supply Chain

Distribution of Labor Risk in Various Production Areas

Linked Upstream and Downstream Risks

Risk in Nodes in Cottonseed (Hybrid) Production

Associated Downstream Goods and Consumer Sectors

Top Global Countries

Cotton seeds for sowing

Cotton seeds (excluding for sowing)

Examples & Resources: Traceability Efforts Associated With Cottonseed (Hybrid)

Footnotes