Tomatoes

• Forced labor and child labor risks are present in tomato cultivation and harvesting worldwide.
• Labor risks exist primarily at the cultivation and harvesting nodes of the tomato supply chain.
• Top producing countries have both small and large farms that contribute to export supply chains.
• Tomato supply chains include numerous actors and tomatoes often change hands at least five or six times before they are sold by retailers.
• To address these challenges, traceability efforts should aim to trace raw, unprocessed tomatoes back to their countries of origin. Ideally, products should be traced to the farm level where possible. Traceability efforts in tomato supply chains should also be applicable in supply chains where tomatoes are further processed and/or used as ingredients in other food and beverage products. See the profile on Tomato Products for more information.

• The U.S. Department of Labor has noted the presence of forced labor in the tomato sector in Mexico.¹List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 28 September 2022, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5873&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.
• The U.S. Department of Labor has identified the risk of child labor in Argentina, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and Paraguay.² List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 28 September 2022, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5873&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.
• Other sources report a significant presence or risk of forced labor in the Xinjiang region of China,³“Canada’s Grocery Chains Stocked with Tomato Products Connected to Chinese Forced Labour.” CBC Radio Canada, November 18, 2021, www.cbc.ca/news/canada/marketplace-tomato-products-investigation-1.6227359. Mexico,⁴U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Affairs. 2020 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor: Mexico. 2020. www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2020/Mexico.pdf.  and the United States.⁵Grinspan, Lautaro. “’This Has Been Happening for a Long Time’: Modern-Day Slavery Uncovered in South Georgia.” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, December 3, 2021, www.ajc.com/news/this-has-been-happening-for-a-long-time-modern-day-slavery-uncovered-in-ga/SHBHTDDTTBG3BCPSVCB3GQ66BQ/.
• In regions of Mexico, evidence suggests that both large and small producers of tomatoes use child labor on their farms.⁶“US Department of Labor Announces $5M in Funding Opportunity to Combat Forced, Child Labor Abuses in Mexico’s Tomato, Chile Pepper Sectors.” United States Department of Labor, October 2021, www.dol.gov/newsroom/releases/ilab/ilab20211004; “Product of Mexico: Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S. Tables.” Los Angeles Times, December 2014, graphics.latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/.  On large farms, children often lack access to education and work alongside their parents.⁷“Product of Mexico: Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S. Tables.” Los Angeles Times, December 2014, graphics.latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/.
• Migrant workers from Morocco,⁸“Are Your Tinned Tomatoes Picked by Slave Labour?” The Guardian, June 20, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/20/tomatoes-italy-mafia-migrant-labour-modern-slavery.  Mali, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Angola,⁹“The Student Who Lifted the Lid on Modern Slavery in Italy.” The Local Italy, January 20, 2017, www.thelocal.it/20170120/the-student-who-lifted-the-lid-on-italys-modern-slavery.  Gambia, Ghana, Nigeria, Sudan, and Somalia,¹⁰“Are Your Tinned Tomatoes Picked by Slave Labour?” The Guardian, June 20, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/20/tomatoes-italy-mafia-migrant-labour-modern-slavery. reportedly work as seasonal laborers in tomato production in the southern regions of Italy. These workers are subject to harsh conditions and paid low wages in what some NGOs have called ”modern slavery.”¹¹“Are Your Tinned Tomatoes Picked by Slave Labour?” The Guardian, June 20, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/20/tomatoes-italy-mafia-migrant-labour-modern-slavery. Migrant workers have also been documented in the United States,¹²Jordan, Miriam. “Migrant Workers Restricted to Farms under One Grower’s Virus Lockdown.” The New York Times, October 19, 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/10/19/us/coronavirus-tomato-migrant-farm-workers.html.  Morocco,¹³Medland, Lydia. “‘There is no time’: Agri-food internal migrant workers in Morocco’s tomato industry.” Journal of Rural Studies, Volume 88, 2021, Pages 482-490, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016721001157?via%3Dihub.  and Turkey.¹⁴Erdoğan, Emine. “Tomato land: women’s labour in food production and processing in Turkey.” PhD thesis, 2016, University of Warwick, wrap.warwick.ac.uk/88626/.
• Migrants, women, Indigenous peoples, and other vulnerable populations are the principal sources of labor in the global tomato industry.¹⁵U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Affairs. Notice of Availability of Funds and Funding Opportunity Announcement for Project to Reduce Child Labor, Forced Labor, and Other Forms of Labor Exploitation of Workers in the Chile Pepper and Tomato Sectors in Mexico, September 2021, govtribe.com/file/government-file/foa-ilab-21-16-dot-pdf-1.  In the Xinjiang region of China,¹⁶“Canada’s Grocery Chains Stocked with Tomato Products Connected to Chinese Forced Labour.” CBC Radio Canada, November 18, 2021, www.cbc.ca/news/canada/marketplace-tomato-products-investigation-1.6227359. labor rights groups have determined that the Uyghurs, an ethnic minority, are subject to forced labor within the tomato sector.¹⁷Swanson, Ana. “U.S. Bans All Cotton and Tomatoes from Xinjiang Region of China.” The New York Times, January 13, 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/01/13/business/economy/xinjiang-cotton-tomato-ban.html. 
• Third-party labor recruiters have been documented in the United States,¹⁸“U.S. Blocking Tomato Shipments from Mexican Farms Accused of Abusing Workers.” Los Angeles Times, December 31, 2021, www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-12-31/u-s-blocks-tomato-shipments-from-mexican-farms-accused-of-abusing-workers.   Italy,¹⁹“Are Your Tinned Tomatoes Picked by Slave Labour?” The Guardian, June 20, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/20/tomatoes-italy-mafia-migrant-labour-modern-slavery.    and Mexico²⁰“Product of Mexico: Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S. Tables.” Los Angeles Times, December 2014, graphics.latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/. with reports of exploitative tactics, like deceptive recruitment and underpayment of workers. In Italy, illegal recruitment has also been noted, as members of the mafia often recruit workers; evidence suggests such workers are paid low wages.²¹“Are Your Tinned Tomatoes Picked by Slave Labour?” The Guardian, June 20, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/20/tomatoes-italy-mafia-migrant-labour-modern-slavery.

• The tomato supply chain is made up of both small and large producers, the distribution of which varies between countries. Large producers in Pakistan, Mexico, and Italy engage in direct bulk supply to downstream nodes and often work directly for distribution entities.²²USAID, The Agribusiness Project. Tomato-Value Chain Competitiveness Assessment, 2014, pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00KN2X.pdf.  Small, medium, and large producers are all present in the Mexican supply chain; workers at large production sites may be at a higher risk of forced labor.²³“Product of Mexico: Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S. Tables.” Los Angeles Times, December 2014, graphics.latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/. Small producers are the most common in Italy²⁴Cechura, L, Zakova Kroupova. Samoggia, A. “Drivers of Productivity Change in the Italian Tomato Food Value Chain.” Agriculture 2021, no. 11, 996. www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/11/10/996.    and India. They often sell their tomatoes to larger producers who then sell to distributors and final retailers.²⁵“Value Chain Study of Tomato Of Karnal, Haryana.” National Horticultural Research & Development Foundation, 2018, midh.gov.in/VCS%20Reports/18-Tomato%20Value%20Chain%20Karnal%20Haryana.pdf. 
• Tomato supply chains tend to be opaque and complex; tomatoes are often traded multiple times between different actors before they are sold to final retailers.²⁶“U.S. Blocking Tomato Shipments from Mexican Farms Accused of Abusing Workers.” Los Angeles Times, December 31, 2021, www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-12-31/u-s-blocks-tomato-shipments-from-mexican-farms-accused-of-abusing-workers.  

• Forced labor and child labor risk is present throughout tomato supply chains worldwide.
• Among large producers, the risk of forced labor may be higher, while among small producers, the risk of child labor may be higher.²⁷“Product of Mexico: Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S. Tables.” Los Angeles Times, December 2014, graphics.latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/. 
• Tomato production occurs in two streams: tomatoes harvested at an industrial level for sauces and canned goods, and those harvested for raw consumption. The risk of forced and child labor appears in both streams.²⁸Cechura, L, Zakova Kroupova. Samoggia, A. “Drivers of Productivity Change in the Italian Tomato Food Value Chain.” Agriculture 2021, no. 11, 996, www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/11/10/996. 

The cultivation and harvesting stage of tomato production begins with the initial planting of tomato seeds in a climate-controlled or climate-consistent environment, usually ranging between 70 to 85°F. After five or six weeks in the climate-controlled environment, the tomato plants are transplanted into a field to mature, which takes an additional three to six weeks. Once mature, the transplanted tomatoes can be harvested over several weeks before production declines. Harvested tomatoes are then sold to a local or regional broker and subsequently to a distributor, who markets and packages the tomatoes. After they are properly packaged, tomatoes are transported via truck or plane, depending on their country of origin and buyer, to their final destination.²⁹“A Guide to Shipping Tomatoes from Mexico.” Mexico Cross Border Freight, June 2, 2020, mexicocrossborderfreight.com/a-guide-to-shipping-tomatoes-from-mexico/.  In different regions, this process can include two or three brokers and distributors before the tomatoes are sold at final retail. This frequent changing of hands means that the supply chain becomes more opaque. Forced labor and child labor risk is highest at the cultivation and harvesting stages of the tomato supply chain.³⁰Duval, Dari, Ashley Kerna Bickel, George Frisvol. “Mexican Fresh Tomatoes: Agribusiness Value Chain Contributions to the U.S. Economy.” University of Arizona, 2018, economics.arizona.edu/mexican-fresh-tomatoes-agribusiness-value-chain-contributions-us-economy.

• 1
  List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 28 September 2022, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5873&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.
• 2
   List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 28 September 2022, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5873&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.
• 3
  “Canada’s Grocery Chains Stocked with Tomato Products Connected to Chinese Forced Labour.” CBC Radio Canada, November 18, 2021, www.cbc.ca/news/canada/marketplace-tomato-products-investigation-1.6227359.
• 4
  U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Affairs. 2020 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor: Mexico. 2020. www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2020/Mexico.pdf. 
• 5
  Grinspan, Lautaro. “’This Has Been Happening for a Long Time’: Modern-Day Slavery Uncovered in South Georgia.” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, December 3, 2021, www.ajc.com/news/this-has-been-happening-for-a-long-time-modern-day-slavery-uncovered-in-ga/SHBHTDDTTBG3BCPSVCB3GQ66BQ/.
• 6
  “US Department of Labor Announces $5M in Funding Opportunity to Combat Forced, Child Labor Abuses in Mexico’s Tomato, Chile Pepper Sectors.” United States Department of Labor, October 2021, www.dol.gov/newsroom/releases/ilab/ilab20211004; “Product of Mexico: Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S. Tables.” Los Angeles Times, December 2014, graphics.latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/. 
• 7
  “Product of Mexico: Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S. Tables.” Los Angeles Times, December 2014, graphics.latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/.
• 8
  “Are Your Tinned Tomatoes Picked by Slave Labour?” The Guardian, June 20, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/20/tomatoes-italy-mafia-migrant-labour-modern-slavery. 
• 9
  “The Student Who Lifted the Lid on Modern Slavery in Italy.” The Local Italy, January 20, 2017, www.thelocal.it/20170120/the-student-who-lifted-the-lid-on-italys-modern-slavery. 
• 10
  “Are Your Tinned Tomatoes Picked by Slave Labour?” The Guardian, June 20, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/20/tomatoes-italy-mafia-migrant-labour-modern-slavery.
• 11
  “Are Your Tinned Tomatoes Picked by Slave Labour?” The Guardian, June 20, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/20/tomatoes-italy-mafia-migrant-labour-modern-slavery.
• 12
  Jordan, Miriam. “Migrant Workers Restricted to Farms under One Grower’s Virus Lockdown.” The New York Times, October 19, 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/10/19/us/coronavirus-tomato-migrant-farm-workers.html. 
• 13
  Medland, Lydia. “‘There is no time’: Agri-food internal migrant workers in Morocco’s tomato industry.” Journal of Rural Studies, Volume 88, 2021, Pages 482-490, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016721001157?via%3Dihub. 
• 14
  Erdoğan, Emine. “Tomato land: women’s labour in food production and processing in Turkey.” PhD thesis, 2016, University of Warwick, wrap.warwick.ac.uk/88626/.
• 15
  U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Affairs. Notice of Availability of Funds and Funding Opportunity Announcement for Project to Reduce Child Labor, Forced Labor, and Other Forms of Labor Exploitation of Workers in the Chile Pepper and Tomato Sectors in Mexico, September 2021, govtribe.com/file/government-file/foa-ilab-21-16-dot-pdf-1. 
• 16
  “Canada’s Grocery Chains Stocked with Tomato Products Connected to Chinese Forced Labour.” CBC Radio Canada, November 18, 2021, www.cbc.ca/news/canada/marketplace-tomato-products-investigation-1.6227359.
• 17
  Swanson, Ana. “U.S. Bans All Cotton and Tomatoes from Xinjiang Region of China.” The New York Times, January 13, 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/01/13/business/economy/xinjiang-cotton-tomato-ban.html. 
• 18
  “U.S. Blocking Tomato Shipments from Mexican Farms Accused of Abusing Workers.” Los Angeles Times, December 31, 2021, www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-12-31/u-s-blocks-tomato-shipments-from-mexican-farms-accused-of-abusing-workers.  
• 19
  “Are Your Tinned Tomatoes Picked by Slave Labour?” The Guardian, June 20, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/20/tomatoes-italy-mafia-migrant-labour-modern-slavery.   
• 20
  “Product of Mexico: Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S. Tables.” Los Angeles Times, December 2014, graphics.latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/.
• 21
  “Are Your Tinned Tomatoes Picked by Slave Labour?” The Guardian, June 20, 2019, www.theguardian.com/world/2019/jun/20/tomatoes-italy-mafia-migrant-labour-modern-slavery.
• 22
  USAID, The Agribusiness Project. Tomato-Value Chain Competitiveness Assessment, 2014, pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00KN2X.pdf. 
• 23
  “Product of Mexico: Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S. Tables.” Los Angeles Times, December 2014, graphics.latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/.
• 24
  Cechura, L, Zakova Kroupova. Samoggia, A. “Drivers of Productivity Change in the Italian Tomato Food Value Chain.” Agriculture 2021, no. 11, 996. www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/11/10/996.   
• 25
  “Value Chain Study of Tomato Of Karnal, Haryana.” National Horticultural Research & Development Foundation, 2018, midh.gov.in/VCS%20Reports/18-Tomato%20Value%20Chain%20Karnal%20Haryana.pdf. 
• 26
  “U.S. Blocking Tomato Shipments from Mexican Farms Accused of Abusing Workers.” Los Angeles Times, December 31, 2021, www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-12-31/u-s-blocks-tomato-shipments-from-mexican-farms-accused-of-abusing-workers.  
• 27
  “Product of Mexico: Hardship on Mexico’s Farms, a Bounty for U.S. Tables.” Los Angeles Times, December 2014, graphics.latimes.com/product-of-mexico-camps/. 
• 28
  Cechura, L, Zakova Kroupova. Samoggia, A. “Drivers of Productivity Change in the Italian Tomato Food Value Chain.” Agriculture 2021, no. 11, 996, www.mdpi.com/2077-0472/11/10/996. 
• 29
  “A Guide to Shipping Tomatoes from Mexico.” Mexico Cross Border Freight, June 2, 2020, mexicocrossborderfreight.com/a-guide-to-shipping-tomatoes-from-mexico/. 
• 30
  Duval, Dari, Ashley Kerna Bickel, George Frisvol. “Mexican Fresh Tomatoes: Agribusiness Value Chain Contributions to the U.S. Economy.” University of Arizona, 2018, economics.arizona.edu/mexican-fresh-tomatoes-agribusiness-value-chain-contributions-us-economy.
• 31
  List of exporters for the selected product in 2021 Product: 0702 Tomatoes, fresh or chilled. ITC Trade Map, www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c0702%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1 .
• 32
  Crops and livestock products. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL .