Tin

Table of Contents

Tin is considered a “conflict mineral,” meaning that in some parts of the world, the mining and trade of tin finances armed conflict and contributes to human and labor rights abuses and violence. The trade of conflict minerals (tin, tungsten, tantalum, and gold, collectively referred to as 3TG) is regulated through legislation such as the European Union’s Conflict Minerals Regulation and the United States’ Dodd-Frank Act. Both pieces of legislation outline the required processes for identifying upstream supply chain actors in order to conduct due diligence to ensure that tin and other conflict minerals being imported were produced responsibly and in a conflict-free manner. Processes are outlined in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas. Supply Chain Mapping is a crucial step for both tin traceability and for the due diligence process. The Responsible Minerals Initiative provides detailed resources for due diligence in tin supply chains.
Tin production often relies on artisanal small mining (ASM), informal collectors, and, in some geographies, private independent smelters.¹ The aggregation of tin ore at the smelting stage of production can make upstream traceability challenging. The most resource-intensive forms of traceability, such as identity preservation, are likely to be less feasible in these contexts. Enhanced supply chain mapping with due diligence gatekeeping approaches for mid-tier actors can help to enable the identification of higher risk inputs and prevent them from entering supply chains.
Some tin producing countries are rapidly increasing their tin output² to meet an increasing global demand. This heightened production could increase the risk of labor abuse and the reliance on child labor within tin supply chains. Traceability systems will need to be adaptable and scalable in order to keep up with expanding supply chains.

Forced Labor or Trafficking in Persons cited by U.S. Government

Child Labor cited by U.S. Government

Risk of Forced Labor or Trafficking in Persons cited by other source

Risk of Child Labor cited by other source

Documented presence of migrant workers

Documented presence of other vulnerable workers

Documented presence or significant likelihood of third-party labor recruiters

The U.S. Department of Labor has reported child labor in tin production in Bolivia and Indonesia, and forced and child labor in tin ore production in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.³
Rights groups have also reported a risk of child labor in Indonesia⁴ and Bolivia.⁵
The risk of forced labor has been linked to tin mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and is strongly associated with the conflict in the regions of North and South Kivu. The team leaders who supervise miners at work in these regions have been found to subject individuals to forced labor.⁶
In Indonesia, there are reports of an influx of migrants to Bangka Island seeking work as coastal miners. This influx is a response to the depletion of land reserves of tin and the reluctance of the local Bangka Island community to engage in coastal mining due to the health and safety risks and the high capital requirement.⁷ Internal migration has also been noted amongst tin mining workers in Bolivia.⁸
Tin mining in the DRC is closely associated with vulnerable workers. Most mining sites are controlled by the military, which creates unequal power dynamics that leaves workers vulnerable to exploitation and abuse. For example, the military is reported to force villagers to work at gunpoint, hold workers in debt bondage after advancing money or food to them with excessive interest rates, make false criminal charges against workers and sentence them to work at the mines, and use child soldiers to guard mining sites.⁹

Large numbers of dispersed, unorganized, or informal small producers or other worksites

Multiple points of aggregation, co-mingling, and/or transformation across supply chain

Complex/opaque supply chains and/or lack of vertical integration

High degree of flexibility in procurement practices of downstream entities

Tin is commonly mined through artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM). Most tin in Indonesia and the DRC is mined by informal ASMs and processed by independent smelters.¹⁰ Black market tin is also purchased by smelters in Indonesia.¹¹ Small-scale cooperatives are responsible for most tin mining in Bolivia.¹²
There are multiple points of transformation across the tin supply chain because tin ore is smelted and refined before being mixed with other metals and manufactured into consumer goods.¹³
The tin supply chain in Indonesia is complex. There is one large state-owned company that integrates mining and smelting, but most tin is mined at ASM sites that are not legally recognized or regulated.¹⁴ The collectors that operate between ASMs and independent smelters also operate outside of the law, which makes it challenging for smelters to determine the origins of the tin ore that they are purchasing.¹⁵ Large tin producers and other independent smelters buy tin from the black market, sometimes through middlemen.¹⁶

Tin supply chains in Bolivia are similarly complex and lack vertical integration. Tin is generally mined by cooperatives, who sell the ores to independent traders. All of these ores are then generally sold to one of a small number of independent smelters before being exported for further processing and manufacturing.¹⁷
Tin mining in Indonesia is dominated by private small-scale production. These mines adjust their tin output depending upon the price level of tin; when the price is high, they increase their tin production, and when it is low, they decrease their tin output. Tin ore production in Indonesia has had to adapt to align with the country’s smelting capacity. Since its smelting capacity is lower than its tin ore production, tin ore production has declined.¹⁸ Thus, the relationship between smelters and miners appears to be flexible, considering the volume of tin ore production compared to domestic smelting capacity.

Scale or nature of risk varies significantly based on geographic area of production

Scale or nature of risk is strongly associated with certain types of suppliers/entities

Scale or nature of risk is present across multiple tiers or nodes of supply chain (including in associated downstream or upstream goods)

The risk of labor abuses varies significantly based on geographic area of production; the risk of child labor has only been reported in Indonesia, Bolivia and the DRC, while the risk of forced labor is specific to the DRC.¹⁹
The risk of child labor is strongly associated with small-scale or informal tin mining operated by families, rather than by large formal companies.²⁰

Tin ore (cassiterite) is mined in large and small-scale or artisanal mines (ASM). It is then acquired by collectors and traders that sell the ore to independent smelters and refiners.²¹ In Indonesia, ASM dominates the tin mining sector and there is only one large state-owned company that integrates the mining and smelting stages of production.²²

After smelting, the refined tin is exported to component manufacturers, then to product manufacturers. Recycled products containing tin can be reintroduced into the production chain at the smelting/refining stage to produce new tin products.²³

Upstream traceability beyond the smelting stage of the tin supply chain is challenging due to the small-scale nature of tin mining and the presence of collectors that often operate outside of the law.²⁴ The risk of child labor is only reported in the mining stage of production.²⁵

Tin ore mining

Collectors/traders

Smelting & refining

Component manufacturing

End product manufacturing

Electronics

Tin can be used in electronics such as phones. Tin is used for soldering materials in phones, connecting wires by melting on to electrical circuit boards and conducting electricity.

Energy and Electrical

Tin can be used to coat glass surfaces and enable electrical conductivity.

Food and Beverage

Tin has a high polish and can be used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion, such as food cans.

Tin Product Tracking Using Blockchain Learn more about the Responsible Mineral Initiative’s due diligence resources for tin supply chains

1
A Collective Approach to Achieving A Sustainable Indonesian Tin Sector – Legacy Report of The Tin Working Group (TWG). aidenvironment and IDH, April 2017, www.idhsustainabletrade.com/uploaded/2017/06/Aidenenvironment_TWG-Legacy-Report_final_Website.pdf.
2
Ramos, D. “Bolivia aims to double tin output in 2022, state miner says.” Reuters, 21 September 2021, www.reuters.com/article/bolivia-tin-idUKL1N2QN1OJ.
3
List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5746&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.
4
Sectoral survey of child labour in informal tin mining in Kepulauan Bangka Belitung Province, Indonesia 2014. International Labour Organization, 2015, www.ilo.org/ipec/Informationresources/WCMS_IPEC_PUB_27535/lang–en/index.html.
5
“Thousands Of Children As Young As 6 Work in Bolivia’s Mines.” NPR, 30 November 2013, www.npr.org/2013/11/30/247967228/thousands-of-children-as-young-as-6-work-in-bolivias-mines.
6
Congo’s Mining Slaves – Enslavement at South Kivu Mining Sites. Free The Slaves, June 2013, freetheslaves.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Congos-Mining-Slaves-web-130622.pdf
7
Rosyida, I. et al. Adapting livelihoods to the impacts of tin mining in Indonesia: options and constraints. The Extractive Industries and Society, 2019, www.final.edu.tr/docs/adapting-livelihoods-to-the-impacts-of-tin-mining-in-indonesiapdf[1605361028].pdf
8
Marston, Andrea. “Vertical farming: tin mining and agro-mineros in Bolivia.” The Journal of Peasant Studies, 2019, www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03066150.2019.1604511
9
Free The Slaves. “Several Types of Slaver Linked to Congo’s Mining Industry.” HuffPost, 25 May 2011, www.huffpost.com/entry/several-types-of-slavery-_b_702827.
10
A Collective Approach to Achieving A Sustainable Indonesian Tin Sector – Legacy Report of The Tin Working Group (TWG). aidenvironment and IDH, April 2017 www.idhsustainabletrade.com/uploaded/2017/06/Aidenenvironment_TWG-Legacy-Report_final_Website.pdf. ; Anderson, C. Schuyler. “Conflict Minerals from the Democratic Republic of the Congo— Tin Processing Plants, a Critical Part of the Tin Supply Chain.” U.S. Geological Survey, pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2015/3022/fs20153022.pdf.
11
Sectoral survey of child labour in informal tin mining in Kepulauan Bangka Belitung Province, Indonesia 2014. International Labour Organization, 2015, www.ilo.org/ipec/Informationresources/WCMS_IPEC_PUB_27535/lang–en/index.html.
12
Ronsse, Silke. Towards a fairer ICT supply chain: Research and fact-finding mission in the context of the project ‘Make ICT Fair’ in Oruro, Bolivia, Catapa, 2019, www.ed.ac.uk/sustainability/programmes-and-projects/student-leadership-for-sustainability/living-lab-projects/positive-impacts-of-living-labs/make-ict-fair-project/towards-a-fairer-ict-supply-chain.
13
The EPRM Due Diligence Hub. European Partnership – Responsible Minerals, europeanpartnership-responsibleminerals.eu/cms/view/5a5784ac-d006-42db-8017-7e01c46c2c5a/eprm-due-diligence-hub.
14
A Collective Approach to Achieving A Sustainable Indonesian Tin Sector – Legacy Report of The Tin Working Group (TWG). aidenvironment and IDH, April 2017 www.idhsustainabletrade.com/uploaded/2017/06/Aidenenvironment_TWG-Legacy-Report_final_Website.pdf.
15
A Collective Approach to Achieving A Sustainable Indonesian Tin Sector – Legacy Report of The Tin Working Group (TWG). aidenvironment and IDH, April 2017 www.idhsustainabletrade.com/uploaded/2017/06/Aidenenvironment_TWG-Legacy-Report_final_Website.pdf.
16
Sectoral survey of child labour in informal tin mining in Kepulauan Bangka Belitung Province, Indonesia 2014. International Labour Organization, 2015, www.ilo.org/ipec/Informationresources/WCMS_IPEC_PUB_27535/lang–en/index.html.
17
Ronsse, Silke. Towards a fairer ICT supply chain: Research and fact-finding mission in the context of the project ‘Make ICT Fair’ in Oruro, Bolivia, Catapa, 2019, www.ed.ac.uk/sustainability/programmes-and-projects/student-leadership-for-sustainability/living-lab-projects/positive-impacts-of-living-labs/make-ict-fair-project/towards-a-fairer-ict-supply-chain.
18
Jianrun, W. “In the future, Indonesia’s tin resources will be concentrated to large-scale smelters.” SMM, 28 February 2022, news.metal.com/newscontent/101761522/In-the-future-Indonesias-tin-resources-will-be-concentrated-to-large-scale-smelters/.
19
A Collective Approach to Achieving A Sustainable Indonesian Tin Sector – Legacy Report of The Tin Working Group (TWG). aidenvironment and IDH, April 2017, www.idhsustainabletrade.com/uploaded/2017/06/Aidenenvironment_TWG-Legacy-Report_final_Website.pdf. ; Free The Slaves. ”Several Types of Slavery Linked to Congo’s Mining Industry.” HuffPost, 25 May 2011, www.huffpost.com/entry/several-types-of-slavery-_b_702827.
20
Sectoral survey of child labour in informal tin mining in Kepulauan Bangka Belitung Province, Indonesia 2014. International Labour Organization, 2015, www.ilo.org/ipec/Informationresources/WCMS_IPEC_PUB_27535/lang–en/index.html. ; Harper, Jake. “PHOTOS: Dust And Danger For Adults — And Kids — In Bolivia’s Mines.” NPR, 17 November 2018, www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/11/17/665863261/photos-dust-and-danger-for-adults-and-kids-in-bolivias-mines.
21
The EPRM Due Diligence Hub. European Partnership – Responsible Minerals, europeanpartnership-responsibleminerals.eu/cms/view/5a5784ac-d006-42db-8017-7e01c46c2c5a/eprm-due-diligence-hub.
22
^xxiv A Collective Approach to Achieving A Sustainable Indonesian Tin Sector – Legacy Report of The Tin Working Group (TWG). aidenvironment and IDH, April 2017 www.idhsustainabletrade.com/uploaded/2017/06/Aidenenvironment_TWG-Legacy-Report_final_Website.pdf.
23
The EPRM Due Diligence Hub. European Partnership – Responsible Minerals, europeanpartnership-responsibleminerals.eu/cms/view/5a5784ac-d006-42db-8017-7e01c46c2c5a/eprm-due-diligence-hub.
24
The EPRM Due Diligence Hub. European Partnership – Responsible Minerals, europeanpartnership-responsibleminerals.eu/cms/view/5a5784ac-d006-42db-8017-7e01c46c2c5a/eprm-due-diligence-hub.
25
Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Mineral Supply Chains. OECD, www.duediligenceguidance.org/
26
List of exporters for the selected product in 2021, Product : 80 Tin and articles thereof. ITC Trade Map, www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c80%7c%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1.

Funding is provided by the United States Department of Labor under cooperative agreement number IL‐35805. 100 percent of the total costs of the project or program is financed with federal funds, for a total of USD 4,000,000. This material does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United States Department of Labor, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the United States Government

Have questions? Contact us at: streams@verite.org
www.verite.org

Supply Chain Characteristics that Impact Traceability

Traceability Takeaways

Nature of Labor Rights Risk/Vulnerable Workers

Features of Production and Supply Chain

Distribution of Labor Risk in Various Production Areas

Linked Upstream and Downstream Risks

Risk in Nodes in Tin Production

Associated Downstream Goods and Consumer Sectors

Top Global Countries

Examples & Resources: Traceability Efforts Associated With Tin

Footnotes