Tantalum Ore (Coltan)

• Tantalum Ore (Coltan) is considered a conflict mineral, meaning that in some parts of the world the mining and trade of tantalum finances armed conflict and contributes to human and labor rights abuses and violence. The trade of conflict minerals (tin, tungsten, tantalum, and gold – 3TG) is regulated through legislation such as the European Union’s Conflict Minerals Regulation and the United States’ Dodd-Frank Act; both pieces of legislation outline required processes for identifying upstream supply chain actors in order to conduct due diligence to ensure that tantalum (and other conflict minerals) imported was produced responsibly and in a conflict-free manner, as outlined in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas. Supply Chain Mapping is a crucial step for traceability of tantalum and for the due diligence process. The Responsible Minerals Initiative provides detailed resources for due diligence in tantalum supply chains.  
• As demand for 5G increases, so will the demand for coltan sourced from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).¹Ojewale, O. Child miners: the dark side of the DRC’s coltan wealth. Institute for Security Studies, 18 October 2021, issafrica.org/iss-today/child-miners-the-dark-side-of-the-drcs-coltan-wealth. Therefore, traceability systems should be flexible and scalable to keep up with expansion in the supply chain. 
• Tantalum ore (coltan) mined using child labor is uncertified and typically enters global supply chains via smuggling and counterfeiting; it may become mixed with certified coltan.²Ojewale, O. Child miners: the dark side of the DRC’s coltan wealth. Institute for Security Studies, 18 October 2021, issafrica.org/iss-today/child-miners-the-dark-side-of-the-drcs-coltan-wealth.  Enhanced supply chain mapping with due diligence gate keeping approaches for mid-tier actors can help enable the identification of higher risk inputs and prevent them from entering supply chains and mixing with certified inputs.  

• Forced labor has been cited by the U.S. Department of Labor in the production of tantalum ore (coltan) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).³ List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5774&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.   
• The U.S. Department of Labor reported that child labor exists in the tantalum ore (coltan) industry in the DRC.^{4 List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5774&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.}  
• Other sources have reported the risk of forced labor in the tantalum ore (coltan) supply chain.⁵ Atabong, A. B. “Scheme to stop conflict minerals’ fails to end child labor in DRC, report says.” Mongabay, 10 May 2022, news.mongabay.com/2022/05/scheme-to-stop-conflict-minerals-fails-to-end-child-labor-in-drc-report-says/.   
• The risk of child labor has been reported widely by other sources in the production of tantalum ore (coltan).⁶Tspngo, E. “Children in the Democratic Republic of Congo mine for coltan and face abuse to supply smartphone industry.” abc News, 29 February 2020, www.abc.net.au/news/2020-03-01/tech-companies-rely-child-labour-abuse-to-mine-coltan-in-congo/11855258; Ojewale, O. Child miners: the dark side of the DRC’s coltan wealth. Institute for Security Studies, 18 October 2021, issafrica.org/iss-today/child-miners-the-dark-side-of-the-drcs-coltan-wealth. 
• There is a documented presence of migrants in the tantalum ore mining industry. Some children are sent away by their parents to work in the mines in order to pay off the family’s debt.⁷List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5774&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.   In the DRC, most child laborers come from remote villages and towns in Kivu.^{8Ojewale, O. Child miners: the dark side of the DRC’s coltan wealth. Institute for Security Studies, 18 October 2021, issafrica.org/iss-today/child-miners-the-dark-side-of-the-drcs-coltan-wealth.}   
• In conflict areas in the DRC, members of the armed groups that control illicit mines often round up members of local communities and force them to work on the mines with threats of violence.⁹ The ITSCi laundromat, Global Witness, 26 April 2022,  www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/natural-resource-governance/itsci-laundromat/#international-supply-chains. 

• Tantalum ore (coltan) mining largely takes place in artisanal and small-scale mines (ASM). Production from ASM provides a major share of the global market supply of tantalum, accounting for approximately 60 percent of all globally mined tantalum ore in the years leading up to 2020.¹⁰Naeher, U. and Schütte, P. “Tantalum supply from artisanal and small-scale mining: A mineral economic evaluation of coltan production and trade dynamics in Africa’s Great Lakes region.” ELSEVIER, October 2020,  www.researchgate.net/publication/344674470_Tantalum_supply_from_artisanal_and_small-scale_mining_A_mineral_economic_evaluation_of_coltan_production_and_trade_dynamics_in_Africa’s_Great_Lakes_region.  Large amounts of tantalum ore entering supply chains originate from unvalidated mines, including mines under the control of militias and rogue army units.^{11Atabong, A. B. “Scheme to stop ;conflict minerals’ fails to end child labor in DRC, report says.” Mongabay, 10 May 2022, news.mongabay.com/2022/05/scheme-to-stop-conflict-minerals-fails-to-end-child-labor-in-drc-report-says/}    
• There is contamination and aggregation of minerals that are fraudulently marked as ‘conflict free’ with those that are correctly marked as ‘conflict free.’¹²McGrath, J. “Companies want to sell you conflict-free phones, but certification isn’t foolproof.” digitaltrends, www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/conflict-minerals-responsible-mining/.  The International Tin Association’s Tin Supply Chain Initiative (iTSCi) aims to ensure that tantalum from a non-certified mine doesn’t get mixed with a batch from one that’s been acknowledged as ‘conflict free’.¹³McGrath, J. “Companies want to sell you conflict-free phones, but certification isn’t foolproof.” digitaltrends, www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/conflict-minerals-responsible-mining/.  They try to achieve this by tagging bags of minerals with approval.¹⁴McGrath, J. “Companies want to sell you conflict-free phones, but certification isn’t foolproof.” digitaltrends, www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/conflict-minerals-responsible-mining/.  However, the tags have become a commodity with sellers selling them to mines that want their minerals to appear conflict free.¹⁵McGrath, J. “Companies want to sell you conflict-free phones, but certification isn’t foolproof.” digitaltrends, www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/conflict-minerals-responsible-mining/.  These smuggled counterfeit minerals can end up in the products of international brands.¹⁶The ITSCi laundromat. Global Witness, 26 April 2022,  www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/natural-resource-governance/itsci-laundromat/#international-supply-chains  
  
  At the smelting stage in Asian countries, Congolese tantalum ore is often mixed with minerals from other countries. The refining stage involves the transformation of tantalum into products that will later be used in manufacturing, such as tantalum metals, powders and oxides.¹⁷“Faced with a gun, what would you do?” War and the militarisation of mining in Eastern Congo, Global Witness, July 2009, www.globalwitness.org/documents/17817/report_en_final_0.pdf. 
• The complex supply chain of tantalum ore (coltan) is populated by traders and middlemen that move the minerals from mines to overseas smelters.¹⁸“Faced with a gun, what would you do?” War and the militarisation of mining in Eastern Congo, Global Witness, July 2009, www.globalwitness.org/documents/17817/report_en_final_0.pdf.  Following mining, the minerals are traded and sold to trading houses by middlemen known as “negociants.”¹⁹“Faced with a gun, what would you do?” War and the militarisation of mining in Eastern Congo, Global Witness, July 2009, www.globalwitness.org/documents/17817/report_en_final_0.pdf.  The minerals are then purchased by exporters called “comptoirs,” who are registered with the Congolese government but are not required to provide documentation on the minerals so their origins can be obscured at this stage.²⁰“Faced with a gun, what would you do?” War and the militarisation of mining in Eastern Congo, Global Witness, July 2009, www.globalwitness.org/documents/17817/report_en_final_0.pdf.  The tantalum ore is exported to smelters/intermediaries abroad, in countries such as the UAE, Thailand, Malaysia, Kazakhstan, China, Hong Kong, and Austria.²¹The ITSCi laundromat. Global Witness, 26 April 2022,  www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/natural-resource-governance/itsci-laundromat/#international-supply-chains.  These exported minerals include conflict-affected minerals from the DRC and smuggled minerals from Rwanda.²²The ITSCi laundromat. Global Witness, 26 April 2022,  www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/natural-resource-governance/itsci-laundromat/#international-supply-chains.  The illicit nature and smuggling of these minerals increase the complexity of the supply chain and makes them harder to trace back to their original mine.²³The ITSCi laundromat. Global Witness, 26 April 2022,  www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/natural-resource-governance/itsci-laundromat/#international-supply-chains. 
• The dominance of ASM in procurement of the tantalum ore as well as the multiple levels of traders and middlemen suggests that there is likely a high degree of flexibility in the procurement practices of downstream entities.²⁴ Naeher, U. and Schütte, P. “Tantalum supply from artisanal and small-scale mining: A mineral economic evaluation o coltan production and trade dynamics in Africa’s Great Lakes region.” ELSEVIER, October 2020,  www.researchgate.net/publication/344674470_Tantalum_supply_from_artisanal_and_small-scale_mining_A_mineral_economic_evaluation_of_coltan_production_and_trade_dynamics_in_Africa’s_Great_Lakes_region. 

• Child labor risk is associated with Eastern Congo, particularly North and South Kivu, and with areas run by armed groups (rebel groups or state army actors).²⁵ List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5774&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10. 
• Child and forced labor risk are strongly associated with unvalidated mines run by armed groups (rebel groups or state army actors), as well as with artisanal and small-scale mines.²⁶Atabong, A. B. “Scheme to stop conflict minerals’ fails to end child labor in DRC, report says.” Mongabay, 10 May 2022, news.mongabay.com/2022/05/scheme-to-stop-conflict-minerals-fails-to-end-child-labor-in-drc-report-says; Bjurling, K. A., Cuvelier, J. and Pöyhönen, P. Voices From The Inside: Local views on mining reform in Eastern DR Congo. Finnwatch & Swedwatch, October 2010, www.somo.nl/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/Voices-from-the-inside.pdf.

Tantalum can be obtained via two methods, either extracting the mineral’s raw ore through mining (artisanal or large scale) or by recovering tantalum from recycled scrap metal or tin smelters.^{27Soto-Viruet, Y. et al. “An Exploration in Mineral Supply Chain Mapping Using Tantalum as an Example.” USGS, 2013,  pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1239/pdf/ofr2013-1239.pdf.}   The tantalum goes through mines, smelters, refineries, and manufacturers before being manufactured into consumer goods.^{28Soto-Viruet, Y. et al. “An Exploration in Mineral Supply Chain Mapping Using Tantalum as an Example.” USGS, 2013,  pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1239/pdf/ofr2013-1239.pdf.}   Mining for the raw ore, as opposed to recycling, accounts for most of the tantalum obtained.²⁹ Soto-Viruet, Y. et al. “An Exploration in Mineral Supply Chain Mapping Using Tantalum as an Example.” USGS, 2013,  pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1239/pdf/ofr2013-1239.pdf.  Once obtained, the tantalum is concentrated by gravity; it is then traded by middlemen and intermediaries³⁰“Faced with a gun, what would you do?” War and the militarisation of mining in Eastern Congo, Global Witness, July 2009, www.globalwitness.org/documents/17817/report_en_final_0.pdf.   and shipped, typically internationally to be processed by smelters and further refined at refineries.^{31Soto-Viruet, Y. et al. “An Exploration in Mineral Supply Chain Mapping Using Tantalum as an Example.” USGS, 2013,  pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1239/pdf/ofr2013-1239.pdf.}  The refining stage involves the transformation of tantalum into products that will later be used in manufacturing, such as tantalum metals, powders, and oxides.³²Soto-Viruet, Y. et al. “An Exploration in Mineral Supply Chain Mapping Using Tantalum as an Example.” USGS, 2013,  pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1239/pdf/ofr2013-1239.pdf.  Following the mining stage in the DRC, multiple middlemen and intermediaries trade the mineral before it reaches the smelters overseas, obscuring the origin of the ore.³³“Faced with a gun, what would you do?” War and the militarisation of mining in Eastern Congo, Global Witness, July 2009, www.globalwitness.org/documents/17817/report_en_final_0.pdf.   The stability of tantalum’s pricing is influenced by the supply and processing of the mineral, which later could impact the final manufactured good in which tantalum is used.³⁴Soto-Viruet, Y. et al. “An Exploration in Mineral Supply Chain Mapping Using Tantalum as an Example.” USGS, 2013,  pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1239/pdf/ofr2013-1239.pdf. 

• 1
  Ojewale, O. Child miners: the dark side of the DRC’s coltan wealth. Institute for Security Studies, 18 October 2021, issafrica.org/iss-today/child-miners-the-dark-side-of-the-drcs-coltan-wealth.
• 2
  Ojewale, O. Child miners: the dark side of the DRC’s coltan wealth. Institute for Security Studies, 18 October 2021, issafrica.org/iss-today/child-miners-the-dark-side-of-the-drcs-coltan-wealth. 
• 3
   List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5774&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.  
• 4
   List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5774&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10. 
• 5
   Atabong, A. B. “Scheme to stop conflict minerals’ fails to end child labor in DRC, report says.” Mongabay, 10 May 2022, news.mongabay.com/2022/05/scheme-to-stop-conflict-minerals-fails-to-end-child-labor-in-drc-report-says/.  
• 6
  Tspngo, E. “Children in the Democratic Republic of Congo mine for coltan and face abuse to supply smartphone industry.” abc News, 29 February 2020, www.abc.net.au/news/2020-03-01/tech-companies-rely-child-labour-abuse-to-mine-coltan-in-congo/11855258; Ojewale, O. Child miners: the dark side of the DRC’s coltan wealth. Institute for Security Studies, 18 October 2021, issafrica.org/iss-today/child-miners-the-dark-side-of-the-drcs-coltan-wealth.
• 7
  List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5774&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.  
• 8
  Ojewale, O. Child miners: the dark side of the DRC’s coltan wealth. Institute for Security Studies, 18 October 2021, issafrica.org/iss-today/child-miners-the-dark-side-of-the-drcs-coltan-wealth. 
• 9
   The ITSCi laundromat, Global Witness, 26 April 2022,  www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/natural-resource-governance/itsci-laundromat/#international-supply-chains. 
• 10
  Naeher, U. and Schütte, P. “Tantalum supply from artisanal and small-scale mining: A mineral economic evaluation of coltan production and trade dynamics in Africa’s Great Lakes region.” ELSEVIER, October 2020,  www.researchgate.net/publication/344674470_Tantalum_supply_from_artisanal_and_small-scale_mining_A_mineral_economic_evaluation_of_coltan_production_and_trade_dynamics_in_Africa’s_Great_Lakes_region. 
• 11
  Atabong, A. B. “Scheme to stop ;conflict minerals’ fails to end child labor in DRC, report says.” Mongabay, 10 May 2022, news.mongabay.com/2022/05/scheme-to-stop-conflict-minerals-fails-to-end-child-labor-in-drc-report-says/  
• 12
  McGrath, J. “Companies want to sell you conflict-free phones, but certification isn’t foolproof.” digitaltrends, www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/conflict-minerals-responsible-mining/. 
• 13
  McGrath, J. “Companies want to sell you conflict-free phones, but certification isn’t foolproof.” digitaltrends, www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/conflict-minerals-responsible-mining/. 
• 14
  McGrath, J. “Companies want to sell you conflict-free phones, but certification isn’t foolproof.” digitaltrends, www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/conflict-minerals-responsible-mining/. 
• 15
  McGrath, J. “Companies want to sell you conflict-free phones, but certification isn’t foolproof.” digitaltrends, www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/conflict-minerals-responsible-mining/. 
• 16
  The ITSCi laundromat. Global Witness, 26 April 2022,  www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/natural-resource-governance/itsci-laundromat/#international-supply-chains  
• 17
  “Faced with a gun, what would you do?” War and the militarisation of mining in Eastern Congo, Global Witness, July 2009, www.globalwitness.org/documents/17817/report_en_final_0.pdf. 
• 18
  “Faced with a gun, what would you do?” War and the militarisation of mining in Eastern Congo, Global Witness, July 2009, www.globalwitness.org/documents/17817/report_en_final_0.pdf. 
• 19
  “Faced with a gun, what would you do?” War and the militarisation of mining in Eastern Congo, Global Witness, July 2009, www.globalwitness.org/documents/17817/report_en_final_0.pdf. 
• 20
  “Faced with a gun, what would you do?” War and the militarisation of mining in Eastern Congo, Global Witness, July 2009, www.globalwitness.org/documents/17817/report_en_final_0.pdf. 
• 21
  The ITSCi laundromat. Global Witness, 26 April 2022,  www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/natural-resource-governance/itsci-laundromat/#international-supply-chains. 
• 22
  The ITSCi laundromat. Global Witness, 26 April 2022,  www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/natural-resource-governance/itsci-laundromat/#international-supply-chains. 
• 23
  The ITSCi laundromat. Global Witness, 26 April 2022,  www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/natural-resource-governance/itsci-laundromat/#international-supply-chains. 
• 24
   Naeher, U. and Schütte, P. “Tantalum supply from artisanal and small-scale mining: A mineral economic evaluation o coltan production and trade dynamics in Africa’s Great Lakes region.” ELSEVIER, October 2020,  www.researchgate.net/publication/344674470_Tantalum_supply_from_artisanal_and_small-scale_mining_A_mineral_economic_evaluation_of_coltan_production_and_trade_dynamics_in_Africa’s_Great_Lakes_region. 
• 25
   List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5774&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10. 
• 26
  Atabong, A. B. “Scheme to stop conflict minerals’ fails to end child labor in DRC, report says.” Mongabay, 10 May 2022, news.mongabay.com/2022/05/scheme-to-stop-conflict-minerals-fails-to-end-child-labor-in-drc-report-says; Bjurling, K. A., Cuvelier, J. and Pöyhönen, P. Voices From The Inside: Local views on mining reform in Eastern DR Congo. Finnwatch & Swedwatch, October 2010, www.somo.nl/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/Voices-from-the-inside.pdf.
• 27
  Soto-Viruet, Y. et al. “An Exploration in Mineral Supply Chain Mapping Using Tantalum as an Example.” USGS, 2013,  pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1239/pdf/ofr2013-1239.pdf.  
• 28
  Soto-Viruet, Y. et al. “An Exploration in Mineral Supply Chain Mapping Using Tantalum as an Example.” USGS, 2013,  pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1239/pdf/ofr2013-1239.pdf.  
• 29
   Soto-Viruet, Y. et al. “An Exploration in Mineral Supply Chain Mapping Using Tantalum as an Example.” USGS, 2013,  pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1239/pdf/ofr2013-1239.pdf. 
• 30
  “Faced with a gun, what would you do?” War and the militarisation of mining in Eastern Congo, Global Witness, July 2009, www.globalwitness.org/documents/17817/report_en_final_0.pdf.  
• 31
  Soto-Viruet, Y. et al. “An Exploration in Mineral Supply Chain Mapping Using Tantalum as an Example.” USGS, 2013,  pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1239/pdf/ofr2013-1239.pdf. 
• 32
  Soto-Viruet, Y. et al. “An Exploration in Mineral Supply Chain Mapping Using Tantalum as an Example.” USGS, 2013,  pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1239/pdf/ofr2013-1239.pdf. 
• 33
  “Faced with a gun, what would you do?” War and the militarisation of mining in Eastern Congo, Global Witness, July 2009, www.globalwitness.org/documents/17817/report_en_final_0.pdf.  
• 34
  Soto-Viruet, Y. et al. “An Exploration in Mineral Supply Chain Mapping Using Tantalum as an Example.” USGS, 2013,  pubs.usgs.gov/of/2013/1239/pdf/ofr2013-1239.pdf. 
• 35
  List of exporters for the selected product in 2021. Product: 2615 Niobium, tantalum, vanadium or zirconium ores and concentrates. ITC Trade Map, trademap.org/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c2615%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c%7c2%7c1%7c%7c1.