Silk Cocoons

Table of Contents

The nature of forced and child labor in the production of silk cocoons varies depending on the country. In some producing countries, labor abuses are state-imposed, while in others, the risk occurs in the private sector. When companies wish to screen out silk produced in countries with a risk of state-imposed forced or child labor, forensic testing could be a useful tool to validate silk origins.
Silk cocoon production does not require significant capital and therefore can take place in rural farms and homes.¹ Small rural farms that produce silk cocoons typically have low administrative capacity, so traceability systems should be flexible and maintain feasibility in contexts where record keeping is paper-based rather than digitized. At the same time, silk cocoon production is an important source of income for thousands of families, so downstream companies should be cognizant that systems that are overly burdensome for small producers may be counterproductive.

Forced Labor or Trafficking in Persons cited by U.S. Government

Risk of Forced Labor or Trafficking in Persons cited by other source

Risk of Child Labor cited by other source

Documented presence of other vulnerable workers

Child Labor cited by U.S. Government

Documented presence of migrant workers

Documented presence or significant likelihood of third-party labor recruiters

The U.S. Department of Labor reports the presence of forced labor in the silk cocoon industry in Uzbekistan.² The U.S. Department of State also lists the presence of forced labor in Uzbekistan in the production of silk cocoons.³
Other sources report the presence of forced labor in Uzbekistan and India in relation to silk cocoon production.⁴
Forced labor and forced child labor in silk cocoon production in Uzbekistan have been linked with government quotas for production. In 2013, silk cocoon production quotas in Uzbekistan schools were decreased in an effort to reduce forced child labor.⁵ Despite this progress, one source reports that children continue to be taken out of class in Uzbekistan to harvest silk cocoons and are threatened with penalties for non-compliance, such as not being allowed to take exams necessary for passing to the next grade level.⁶
In the context of state-imposed forced labor in the production of silk cocoons in Uzbekistan, certain populations, such as farmers and public sector workers, are particularly vulnerable.⁷ All agricultural land in Uzbekistan is owned by the government and leased to farmers with few protections.⁸ Because the government has the ability to take land away from farmers, the government’s power over farmers is particularly strong and allows them to put pressure on farmers to meet national quotas of silk cocoons.⁹ Public sector workers are reliant on the government for their jobs and state-support payments, making them vulnerable to state-orchestrated forced labor.¹⁰ Farmers may rely on rural workers living in poverty to help with production and these workers are paid in-kind through goods such as firewood and cooking oil.¹¹

Large numbers of dispersed, unorganized, or informal small producers or other worksites

Multiple points of aggregation, co-mingling, and/or transformation across supply chain

Complex/opaque supply chains and/or lack of vertical integration

High degree of flexibility in procurement practices of downstream entities

In Uzbekistan, silk production is state-run and centrally organized via the government which controls the silk sector. However, silk cocoons are produced on farms and in homes throughout the country meaning that there are large numbers of widely dispersed producers.¹² In India, small producers generate significant volumes of silk cocoons, due to low barriers to entry into the sericulture industry.¹³ While tracing to the level of individual producers may not be feasible, visibility to the country or region level of production can help identify the nature of risk, as risk manifests differently in India and Uzbekistan.
Silk cocoons go through multiple points of transformation across the supply chain. They are processed through operations such as deflossing and spinning, producing silk filaments from the cocoons.¹⁴ These raw silk filaments are processed further through spinning, degumming, dyeing, and weaving to produce silk garments for export.¹⁵
The degree of opacity of silk cocoon production varies between countries. Uzbekistan’s production is centrally controlled by the government, providing some vertical integration.¹⁶ However, the supply chain in India is fragmented as a result of the high numbers of producers dispersed across a variety of rural locations.¹⁷
There is a high degree of flexibility in procurement practices because of the abundance of producers in silk cocoon-producing countries.¹⁸

Scale or nature of risk varies significantly based on geographic area of production

Scale or nature of risk is strongly associated with certain types of suppliers/entities

Scale or nature of risk is present across multiple tiers or nodes of supply chain (including in associated downstream or upstream goods)

The nature of the risk varies based on the geographic area of production as only Uzbekistan and India have recorded cases or risk of forced and child labor in silk cocoon production. In Uzbekistan, the risk of forced labor is tied to government quotas and government-enforced labor of public sector workers.¹⁹ In India, forced labor risk is associated with debt bondage and loan repayment in the private sector.²⁰
In Uzbekistan, the risk of forced and child labor is associated with public sector workers that are forced to contribute to national quotas set by the government.²¹ The risk is also associated with rural and village farms and homesteads in both Uzbekistan and India.²²

Silk cocoons are produced through sericulture, which is the process of raising silkworm caterpillars to produce raw silk.²³ Sericulture requires mulberry plants, the primary food source for silkworms, and silkworm eggs as primary inputs.²⁴ After they hatch, silkworms are fed mulberry leaves for approximately six weeks.²⁵ Sericulture producers are generally small-scale,²⁶ and the six-week process of feeding silkworms is a labor-intensive task that must be performed throughout the day and night. After six weeks, silkworms spin cocoons, which are each made from a single filament of silk. Cocoons are then processed to achieve thread extraction: cocoons are boiled in water to kill the silkworm larva, and then the cocoon filament is unwound and reeled; additional processing steps include deflossing and throwing the filament to produce raw silk thread.²⁷ Raw silk then moves on to further processing to create silk yarn, fabric, and end products. To learn more about silk processing and production, read the Silk Thread and Silk Fabric profiles.

Mulberry nursery, planting, and maintenance

Rearing of silkworms

Cocoon harvest

Mulberry leaves are a key input for producing silkworms and silk cocoons.

Textiles Apparel and Luxury Goods

Silk cocoons are used to produce silk thread and silk fabrics, which are in turn used for textiles and garments.

Cosmetics and Personal Care

There is a growing market for silk cocoon-based skin-care formulas.

India²⁹
China
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Thailand
North Korea
Brazil
Iran
Tajikistan
Afghanistan

Global Organic Textile Standard ReshaMandi – Silk traceability using artificial intelligence

1
Vishwanath, Ms. Lata. “Silk Industry in India: The Story Behind the Sheen of the Indian Queen of Textiles.” Teri The Energy and Resources Institute, 13 December 2021, www.teriin.org/article/silk-industry-india-story-behind-sheen-indian-queen-textiles.
2
Bureau of International Labor Affairs, List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. 28 September 2022, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=9569&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.
3
United States of America Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report. June 2021, www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/TIPR-GPA-upload-07222021.pdf.
4
There Is No Work We Haven’t Done: Forced Labor of Public-Sector Employees in Uzbekistan. Solidarity Centre and Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights (UGF), February 2019, www.solidaritycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Uzbekistan.Forced-Labor-in-Public-Sector-Report.English.1.2019.pdf.
5
Silk Loop for Uzbek Farmers. Uzbek Forum for Human Rights (UGF), 12 September 2015, www.uzbekforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Silk-Loop-for-Uzbek-Farmers.pdf.
6
There Is No Work We Haven’t Done: Forced Labor of Public-Sector Employees in Uzbekistan. Solidarity Centre and Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights (UGF), February 2019, www.solidaritycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Uzbekistan.Forced-Labor-in-Public-Sector-Report.English.1.2019.pdf.
7
Silk Loop for Uzbek Farmers. Uzbek Forum for Human Rights (UGF), 12 September 2015, www.uzbekforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Silk-Loop-for-Uzbek-Farmers.pdf.
8
Silk Loop for Uzbek Farmers. Uzbek Forum for Human Rights (UGF), 12 September 2015, www.uzbekforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Silk-Loop-for-Uzbek-Farmers.pdf.
9
Silk Loop for Uzbek Farmers. Uzbek Forum for Human Rights (UGF), 12 September 2015, www.uzbekforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Silk-Loop-for-Uzbek-Farmers.pdf.
10
Silk Loop for Uzbek Farmers. Uzbek Forum for Human Rights (UGF), 12 September 2015, www.uzbekforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Silk-Loop-for-Uzbek-Farmers.pdf.
11
Silk Loop for Uzbek Farmers. Uzbek Forum for Human Rights (UGF), 12 September 2015, www.uzbekforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Silk-Loop-for-Uzbek-Farmers.pdf.
12
There Is No Work We Haven’t Done: Forced Labor of Public-Sector Employees in Uzbekistan. Solidarity Centre and Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights (UGF), February 2019, www.solidaritycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Uzbekistan.Forced-Labor-in-Public-Sector-Report.English.1.2019.pdf; Silk Loop for Uzbek Farmers, Uzbek Forum for Human Rights (UGF), 12 September 2015, www.uzbekforum.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Silk-Loop-for-Uzbek-Farmers.pdf.
13
Vishwanath, Ms. Lata. “Silk Industry in India: The Story Behind the Sheen of the Indian Queen of Textiles.” Teri The Energy and Resources Institute, 13 December 2021, www.teriin.org/article/silk-industry-india-story-behind-sheen-indian-queen-textiles.
14
Sharma, Sushma et al. “Production Activities and Value Chain Analysis of Sericulture in Western Inner Terai Region of Nepal.” International Journal of Social Sciences and Management, 28 April 2021, www.researchgate.net/publication/351199662_Production_Activities_and_Value_Chain_Analysis_of_Sericulture_in_Western_Inner_Terai_Region_of_Nepal.
15
Sharma, Sushma et al. “Production Activities and Value Chain Analysis of Sericulture in Western Inner Terai Region of Nepal.” International Journal of Social Sciences and Management, 28 April 2021, www.researchgate.net/publication/351199662_Production_Activities_and_Value_Chain_Analysis_of_Sericulture_in_Western_Inner_Terai_Region_of_Nepal.
16
There Is No Work We Haven’t Done: Forced Labor of Public-Sector Employees in Uzbekistan, Solidarity Centre and Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights (UGF), February 2019, www.solidaritycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Uzbekistan.Forced-Labor-in-Public-Sector-Report.English.1.2019.pdf.
17
Prasad, Aishwarya S., et al. “A Survey on Silk supply Chain Management Using Blockchain.” Perspectives in Communication, Embedded-Systems and Signal Processing (PiCES) – An International Journal, 2ⁿ May 2021, d-nb.info/1234790556/34.
18
“Uzbekistan: Exhausting Silk Worm Cocoon Harvest Opens.” Eurasianet, 25 May 2016, eurasianet.org/uzbekistan-exhausting-silkworm-cocoon-harvest-opens.
19
There Is No Work We Haven’t Done: Forced Labor of Public-Sector Employees in Uzbekistan. Solidarity Centre and Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights (UGF), February 2019, www.solidaritycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Uzbekistan.Forced-Labor-in-Public-Sector-Report.English.1.2019.pdf.
20
Page, Tom and Sugam Pokharel. “Silk slaves: India’s bonded laborers are forced to work to pay off debts.” CNN, 13 March 2021, www.cnn.com/2021/03/13/asia/silk-slaves-india-the-freedom-project-spc-intl/index.html.
21
There Is No Work We Haven’t Done: Forced Labor of Public-Sector Employees in Uzbekistan. Solidarity Centre and Uzbek-German Forum for Human Rights (UGF), February 2019, www.solidaritycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Uzbekistan.Forced-Labor-in-Public-Sector-Report.English.1.2019.pdf.
22
“Uzbekistan: Exhausting Silk Worm Cocoon Harvest Opens.” Eurasianet, 25 May 2016, eurasianet.org/uzbekistan-exhausting-silkworm-cocoon-harvest-opens; Page, Tom and Sugam Pokharel. “Silk slaves: India’s bonded laborers are forced to work to pay off debts.” CNN, 13 March 2021, www.cnn.com/2021/03/13/asia/silk-slaves-india-the-freedom-project-spc-intl/index.html.
23
Rogers, Kara. “Sericulture: Silk Production.” Encyclopedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/topic/sericulture.
24
Sharma, Sushma et al. “Production Activities and Value Chain Analysis of Sericulture in Western Inner Terai Region of Nepal.” International Journal of Social Sciences and Management, 28 April 2021, www.researchgate.net/publication/351199662_Production_Activities_and_Value_Chain_Analysis_of_Sericulture_in_Western_Inner_Terai_Region_of_Nepal.
25
“How is Silk Made? A Step by Step Guide.” Biddle SawyerSilks, biddlesawyersilks.com/how-is-silk-made-a-step-by-step-guide/.
26
Sharma, Sushma et al. “Production Activities and Value Chain Analysis of Sericulture in Western Inner Terai Region of Nepal.” International Journal of Social Sciences and Management, 28 April 2021, www.researchgate.net/publication/351199662_Production_Activities_and_Value_Chain_Analysis_of_Sericulture_in_Western_Inner_Terai_Region_of_Nepal.
27
“How is Silk Made? A Step by Step Guide.” Biddle SawyerSilks, biddlesawyersilks.com/how-is-silk-made-a-step-by-step-guide/; Sharma, Sushma et al. “Production Activities and Value Chain Analysis of Sericulture in Western Inner Terai Region of Nepal.” International Journal of Social Sciences and Management, 28 April 2021, www.researchgate.net/publication/351199662_Production_Activities_and_Value_Chain_Analysis_of_Sericulture_in_Western_Inner_Terai_Region_of_Nepal; Rogers, Kara. “Sericulture: Silk Production.” Encyclopedia Britannica, www.britannica.com/topic/sericulture.
28
ITC Trade Map, List of exporters for the selected product in 2021. Product: 5001 Silkworm cocoons suitable for reeling. 2021, www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c5001%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1.
29
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Crops and livestock products. 2021, www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL.

Funding is provided by the United States Department of Labor under cooperative agreement number IL‐35805. 100 percent of the total costs of the project or program is financed with federal funds, for a total of USD 4,000,000. This material does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United States Department of Labor, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the United States Government

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Supply Chain Characteristics that Impact Traceability

Traceability Takeaways

Nature of Labor Rights Risk/Vulnerable Workers

Features of Production and Supply Chain

Distribution of Labor Risk in Various Production Areas

Linked Upstream and Downstream Risks

Risk in Nodes in Silk Cocoon Production

Associated Upstream Goods with Labor Risk

Associated Downstream Goods and Consumer Sectors

Top Global Countries

Examples & Resources: Traceability Efforts Associated With Silk Cocoons

Footnotes