Cobalt Ore

• Child labor, including hazardous child labor, is the primary labor rights issue associated with artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM). There are currently efforts to formalize ASM mining through the development of mining cooperatives, which can provide the infrastructure for managing human rights and environmental impacts. However, as of 2022, many ASM mines are still informal. Children are involved directly in mining work as well as in adjunct work in active mining areas such as food sales or sexual exploitation.¹Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor. Combatting Child Labor in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s Cobalt Industry (COTECCO). https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/combatting-child-labor-democratic-republic-congos-cobalt-industry-cotecco.  Understanding the complex dynamics contributing to child labor at a given mine site – and therefore what types of preventative or remediation interventions may be helpful – requires nuanced, on-the-ground assessments conducted by culturally competent assessors. Therefore, traceability systems should not stop at identifying the origin of cobalt in a supply chain. This due diligence includes supply chain mapping; understanding the conditions for mining, transportation, and trading; conducting risk assessments; and remediating impacts and root causes. Because ASM mining is central to the livelihood of so many families and individuals in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC),²Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor. Combatting Child Labor in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s Cobalt Industry (Cotecco). July 2022, https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/Gayar.Arwa.T%40dol.gov/DRC-CO~2.PDF.   traceability efforts that seek to comprehensively avoid or screen out ASM mined-minerals in favor of minerals mined at large-scale mines (LSM) are likely to contribute to endemic poverty and inequality rather than improving the lives of vulnerable workers and families.
• Due to the significant presence of ASM mining in cobalt production, the risk of child labor is primarily reported in artisanal small mines in the Democratic Republic of the Congo; traceability systems should be flexible and interoperable to allow for the integration of paper-based records, which may be more feasible in small, informal mining contexts.
• The use of subcontractor labor agencies at industrial mines in the DRC is the heart of the industrial labor abuse problems.³The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf.  Mines distance themselves from their responsibility towards their workforce by employing them indirectly through third parties.⁴The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf. To address the risk of labor abuses presented by labor recruitment agencies, supply chain mapping could be used to identify specific industrial worksites in a supply chain so that comprehensive assessments of labor conditions at worksites as well as assessments of the practices of labor recruiters associated with those worksites can be conducted.⁵“RMAP Assessment Introduction.” Responsible Minerals Initiative, https://www.responsiblemineralsinitiative.org/responsible-minerals-assurance-process/. This is an example of a “pinch point” (also known as a gatekeeper or choke point strategy), which can work in supply chains such as cobalt where there are a relatively small number of actors at a particular tier. The high frequency of co-mingling means that bulk commodity or mass balance traceability methods may be more suitable than a strict identity preservation traceability method.
• Demand for cobalt ore is increasing due to the growing market interest in sustainable electric vehicles that use the lithium-ion batteries made from cobalt;⁶The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf. therefore, traceability systems should be flexible and scalable in order to keep up with the increased demand for cobalt ore.

• The U.S. Department of State has reported forced child labor and child trafficking in cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).⁷2022 Trafficking in Persons Report. U.S. Department of State, July 2022, www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/337308-2022-TIP-REPORT-inaccessible.pdf. 
• The U.S. Department of Labor has reported child labor in the production of cobalt ore (heterogenite) in the DRC.⁸List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 28 September 2022, https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5810&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.
• Other sources have also identified child labor in the production of cobalt ore in the DRC, including Worst Forms of Child Labor.⁹Tria. E. “The impact of Covid-19 on child labour in cobalt mines in the DRC.” Humanium, 4 May 2021, www.humanium.org/en/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-child-labour-in-cobalt-mines-in-the-drc; “This Is What We Die For” Human Rights Abuses in The Democratic Republic of The Congo Power The Global Trade in Cobalt. Amnesty International, January 2016, www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en.  
• Workers at artisanal mines often migrate within a province to work at the mines where they anticipate the greatest financial earnings.¹⁰Interconnected supply chains: a comprehensive look at due diligence challenges and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. OECD, 2019, mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf.  There are also reports of Chinese nationals migrating to the DRC to work in Chinese owned mines.¹¹Niarchos, N. ”The Dark Side of Congo’s Cobalt Rush.“ The New Yorker, 24 May 2021, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/05/31/the-dark-side-of-congos-cobalt-rush. 
• Labor agencies are used to recruit a significant proportion of labor on industrial mining sites in the DRC. The use of these recruiters has been associated with low wages and job insecurity – in some cases, the recruiters function as employers rather than the industrial mining company.¹²The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf. 

• Small artisanal mines operate alongside industrial mines in the DRC.¹³“This Is What We Die For” Human Rights Abuses in The Democratic Republic of The Congo Power The Global Trade in Cobalt. Amnesty International, January 2016, www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/.  Twenty percent of global cobalt exports from the DRC are produced by small artisanal miners, while 80 percent is from the industrial mines.¹⁴The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf.  ASM cobalt mining is a critical source of livelihoods for many families in the DRC.¹⁵“Artisanal and small-scale cobalt mining and the importance of formalization: An explainer with Pact’s Mickaël Daudin.” Pact, 25 July 2022, https://www.pactworld.org/blog/artisanal-and-small-scale-cobalt-mining-and-importance-formalization-explainer-pact%E2%80%99s-micka%C3%ABl. 
• Mineral outputs from ASM sites are often purchased by industrial mine operators to increase their volume, while at the same time, LSM operators are disincentivized to transparently report their incorporation of minerals originating from ASM.¹⁶Interconnected supply chains: a comprehensive look at due diligence challenges and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Responsible Business Conduct, 2019. mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf.  Cobalt mined from Chinese-owned artisanal and industrial mines across south-eastern DRC is mixed during the preliminary refining stage to make crude cobalt hydroxide for exportation to China.¹⁷Kara, S. “Is your phone tainted by the misery of the 35,000 children in Congo’s mines?” The Guardian, 12 October 2018, www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/oct/12/phone-misery-children-congo-cobalt-mines-drc?CMP=share_btn_fb&fbclid=IwAR26RQqrSzi6qW0Dtn1DTyyTd5AahJh8zbqsCYG0PTh4aqpCTIGVL4BN21c.  Similarly, operators of formalized small artisanal mines purchase and blend minerals from informal artisanal sites.¹⁸Interconnected supply chains: a comprehensive look at due diligence challenges and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. OECD, 2019, mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf.  The mixed cobalt ore is then transformed through processes of refining and smelting to make it suitable for use in lithium-ion batteries.¹⁹Federated Hermes. “Modern Slavery: The true cost of cobalt mining.” Human Trafficking Search, 2017, https://humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/modern-slavery-the-true-cost-of-cobalt-mining/#:~:text=Thousands%20of%20artisanal%20miners%20dig,shield%20toxic%20dust%20or%20shoes.. 
• There is a reported incidence of corruption and opaque subcontracted relationships between mining concession holders and mine operators that can obscure the presence of the actual entities involved in mine management.²⁰Interconnected supply chains: a comprehensive look at due diligence challenges and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Responsible Business Conduct, 2019.  mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf 
• There is a small degree of vertical integration in cobalt ore supply chains because some international refiners also own mines in the DRC.²¹Interconnected supply chains: a comprehensive look at due diligence challenges and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. OECD, 2019, mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf. However, vertically integrated companies do not necessarily source cobalt exclusively from their own mines, and other non-integrated refiners rely on international commodity traders to source cobalt or set up direct agreements with exporters in the DRC.²²Interconnected supply chains: a comprehensive look at due diligence challenges and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. OECD, 2019, mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf.  The existence of traders between artisanal mines and refiners complicates the supply chain.²³Federated Hermes. “Modern Slavery: The true cost of cobalt mining.” Human Trafficking Search, 2017, humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/modern-slavery-the-true-cost-of-cobalt-mining/#:~:text=Mobile%20power%2C%20human%20toll&text=In%20the%20DRC%2C%20there%20are,poorest%20economy%20in%20the%20world. 
• Artisanal mines sell their cobalt ore to processing companies via metals markets,²⁴Federated Hermes. “Modern Slavery: The true cost of cobalt mining.” Human Trafficking Search, 2017, humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/modern-slavery-the-true-cost-of-cobalt-mining/#:~:text=Mobile%20power%2C%20human%20toll&text=In%20the%20DRC%2C%20there%20are,poorest%20economy%20in%20the%20world. suggesting that there is a lack of contracts between small mines and companies. This may give processing companies a degree of flexibility in procurement of mined copper ore.

• The nature of the risk varies based on geographic area of production as child labor is only recorded in artisanal mines in the DRC, specifically in the southern provinces of the country.²⁵“This Is What We Die For” Human Rights Abuses in The Democratic Republic of The Congo Power The Global Trade in Cobalt. Amnesty International, January 2016, www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/.  
• Risk of child labor in the DRC is generally associated with smaller artisanal cobalt mines.²⁶“This Is What We Die For” Human Rights Abuses in The Democratic Republic of The Congo Power The Global Trade in Cobalt. Amnesty International, January 2016, www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/. Manual labor in artisanal mines is conducted by both adults and children.²⁷“This Is What We Die For” Human Rights Abuses in The Democratic Republic of The Congo Power The Global Trade in Cobalt. Amnesty International, January 2016, www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/.  The OECD has noted that while distinct cases of forced labor have not been authoritatively documented at ASM or LSM, both types of sites may present risks tied to the presence of security forces, unstable working relationships, multiple levels of dependency between workers and mine operators, and generally hazardous working conditions, all of which elevate the risk of other labor rights abuses. In particular, workers at industrial mining sites recruited and sometimes managed on-site by third-party labor recruiters are subject to adverse working conditions.²⁸The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf. They are subjected to extremely low pay (not meeting the minimum living wage), excessive working hours, degrading treatment, unsafe working conditions, and poor quality personal safety equipment, if any.²⁹The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines, Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ). November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf.

The cobalt ore can be produced at either an industrial mine (80 percent of ore produced in the DRC) or artisanal small mines (20 percent of ore produced in the DRC). The risk of child labor exists predominantly in artisanal mines; however, there are also reports of labor abuses existing in industrial mines.³⁰The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines, Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ). November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf. 

Following mining at ASM sites, miners and traders in the DRC take their cobalt ore to metals markets where minerals are traded. Independent traders buy the cobalt ore and sell the ore to larger processing companies in the DRC that process and then export the ore.³¹“This Is What We Die For” Human Rights Abuses in The Democratic Republic of The Congo Power The Global Trade in Cobalt. Amnesty International, January 2016, www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/. Cobalt ore from industrial mines is sold directly to the cobalt processors in the DRC.³²Federated Hermes, “Modern Slavery: The true cost of cobalt mining.” Human Trafficking Search, 2017, humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/modern-slavery-the-true-cost-of-cobalt-mining/#:~:text=Mobile%20power%2C%20human%20toll&text=In%20the%20DRC%2C%20there%20are,poorest%20economy%20in%20the%20world.  Once exported, companies abroad can further smelt and refine the cobalt ore before selling it on to component (cathode) manufacturers and then to lithium-ion battery manufacturers, which then sell to well-known brands.³³Federated Hermes, “Modern Slavery: The true cost of cobalt mining.” Human Trafficking Search, 2017, humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/modern-slavery-the-true-cost-of-cobalt-mining/#:~:text=Mobile%20power%2C%20human%20toll&text=In%20the%20DRC%2C%20there%20are,poorest%20economy%20in%20the%20world.  These brands exist in industries such as electric cars, jet engines, laptops, and mobile phones.³⁴Federated Hermes, “Modern Slavery: The true cost of cobalt mining.” Human Trafficking Search, 2017, humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/modern-slavery-the-true-cost-of-cobalt-mining/#:~:text=Mobile%20power%2C%20human%20toll&text=In%20the%20DRC%2C%20there%20are,poorest%20economy%20in%20the%20world.  China is the biggest consumer of global cobalt, with 80 percent being used to make rechargeable batteries.³⁵The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf. 

• 1
  Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor. Combatting Child Labor in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s Cobalt Industry (COTECCO). https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/combatting-child-labor-democratic-republic-congos-cobalt-industry-cotecco. 
• 2
  Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor. Combatting Child Labor in the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s Cobalt Industry (Cotecco). July 2022, https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/Gayar.Arwa.T%40dol.gov/DRC-CO~2.PDF.  
• 3
  The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf. 
• 4
  The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf.
• 5
  “RMAP Assessment Introduction.” Responsible Minerals Initiative, https://www.responsiblemineralsinitiative.org/responsible-minerals-assurance-process/.
• 6
  The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf.
• 7
  2022 Trafficking in Persons Report. U.S. Department of State, July 2022, www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/337308-2022-TIP-REPORT-inaccessible.pdf. 
• 8
  List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 28 September 2022, https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5810&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.
• 9
  Tria. E. “The impact of Covid-19 on child labour in cobalt mines in the DRC.” Humanium, 4 May 2021, www.humanium.org/en/the-impact-of-covid-19-on-child-labour-in-cobalt-mines-in-the-drc; “This Is What We Die For” Human Rights Abuses in The Democratic Republic of The Congo Power The Global Trade in Cobalt. Amnesty International, January 2016, www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en.  
• 10
  Interconnected supply chains: a comprehensive look at due diligence challenges and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. OECD, 2019, mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf. 
• 11
  Niarchos, N. ”The Dark Side of Congo’s Cobalt Rush.“ The New Yorker, 24 May 2021, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/05/31/the-dark-side-of-congos-cobalt-rush. 
• 12
  The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf. 
• 13
  “This Is What We Die For” Human Rights Abuses in The Democratic Republic of The Congo Power The Global Trade in Cobalt. Amnesty International, January 2016, www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/. 
• 14
  The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf. 
• 15
  “Artisanal and small-scale cobalt mining and the importance of formalization: An explainer with Pact’s Mickaël Daudin.” Pact, 25 July 2022, https://www.pactworld.org/blog/artisanal-and-small-scale-cobalt-mining-and-importance-formalization-explainer-pact%E2%80%99s-micka%C3%ABl. 
• 16
  Interconnected supply chains: a comprehensive look at due diligence challenges and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Responsible Business Conduct, 2019. mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf. 
• 17
  Kara, S. “Is your phone tainted by the misery of the 35,000 children in Congo’s mines?” The Guardian, 12 October 2018, www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/oct/12/phone-misery-children-congo-cobalt-mines-drc?CMP=share_btn_fb&fbclid=IwAR26RQqrSzi6qW0Dtn1DTyyTd5AahJh8zbqsCYG0PTh4aqpCTIGVL4BN21c. 
• 18
  Interconnected supply chains: a comprehensive look at due diligence challenges and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. OECD, 2019, mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf. 
• 19
  Federated Hermes. “Modern Slavery: The true cost of cobalt mining.” Human Trafficking Search, 2017, https://humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/modern-slavery-the-true-cost-of-cobalt-mining/#:~:text=Thousands%20of%20artisanal%20miners%20dig,shield%20toxic%20dust%20or%20shoes.. 
• 20
  Interconnected supply chains: a comprehensive look at due diligence challenges and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Responsible Business Conduct, 2019.  mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf 
• 21
  Interconnected supply chains: a comprehensive look at due diligence challenges and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. OECD, 2019, mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf.
• 22
  Interconnected supply chains: a comprehensive look at due diligence challenges and opportunities sourcing cobalt and copper from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. OECD, 2019, mneguidelines.oecd.org/Interconnected-supply-chains-a-comprehensive-look-at-due-diligence-challenges-and-opportunities-sourcing-cobalt-and-copper-from-the-DRC.pdf. 
• 23
  Federated Hermes. “Modern Slavery: The true cost of cobalt mining.” Human Trafficking Search, 2017, humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/modern-slavery-the-true-cost-of-cobalt-mining/#:~:text=Mobile%20power%2C%20human%20toll&text=In%20the%20DRC%2C%20there%20are,poorest%20economy%20in%20the%20world. 
• 24
  Federated Hermes. “Modern Slavery: The true cost of cobalt mining.” Human Trafficking Search, 2017, humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/modern-slavery-the-true-cost-of-cobalt-mining/#:~:text=Mobile%20power%2C%20human%20toll&text=In%20the%20DRC%2C%20there%20are,poorest%20economy%20in%20the%20world.
• 25
  “This Is What We Die For” Human Rights Abuses in The Democratic Republic of The Congo Power The Global Trade in Cobalt. Amnesty International, January 2016, www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/.  
• 26
  “This Is What We Die For” Human Rights Abuses in The Democratic Republic of The Congo Power The Global Trade in Cobalt. Amnesty International, January 2016, www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/.
• 27
  “This Is What We Die For” Human Rights Abuses in The Democratic Republic of The Congo Power The Global Trade in Cobalt. Amnesty International, January 2016, www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/. 
• 28
  The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf.
• 29
  The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines, Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ). November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf.
• 30
  The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines, Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ). November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf. 
• 31
  “This Is What We Die For” Human Rights Abuses in The Democratic Republic of The Congo Power The Global Trade in Cobalt. Amnesty International, January 2016, www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/.
• 32
  Federated Hermes, “Modern Slavery: The true cost of cobalt mining.” Human Trafficking Search, 2017, humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/modern-slavery-the-true-cost-of-cobalt-mining/#:~:text=Mobile%20power%2C%20human%20toll&text=In%20the%20DRC%2C%20there%20are,poorest%20economy%20in%20the%20world. 
• 33
  Federated Hermes, “Modern Slavery: The true cost of cobalt mining.” Human Trafficking Search, 2017, humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/modern-slavery-the-true-cost-of-cobalt-mining/#:~:text=Mobile%20power%2C%20human%20toll&text=In%20the%20DRC%2C%20there%20are,poorest%20economy%20in%20the%20world. 
• 34
  Federated Hermes, “Modern Slavery: The true cost of cobalt mining.” Human Trafficking Search, 2017, humantraffickingsearch.org/resource/modern-slavery-the-true-cost-of-cobalt-mining/#:~:text=Mobile%20power%2C%20human%20toll&text=In%20the%20DRC%2C%20there%20are,poorest%20economy%20in%20the%20world. 
• 35
  The Road to Ruin? Electric vehicles and workers’ rights abuses at DR Congo’s industrial cobalt mines. Rights and Accountability in Development (RAID) and Centre d’Aide Juridico-Judiciaire (CAJJ), November 2021, https://raid-uk.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/report_road_to_ruin_evs_cobalt_workers_nov_2021.pdf. 
• 36
  List of exporters for the selected product in 2021. Product: 2605 Cobalt ores and concentrates. ITC Trade Map, www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c2605%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1.