Zinc

• Both forced labor and child labor have been documented in zinc supply chains, highlighting the need for traceability solutions that can support broader company due diligence strategies.  
• Various vulnerable populations, including children and migrants, have been documented in zinc production. Understanding the nuance of risk for different worker demographics present necessitates full supply chain mapping to the mining level. Mapping efforts should take into account that zinc production is often associated with the mining of other minerals, such as copper and silver, that may have their own labor risks. Information from this discovery process should be used to help prioritize origin points for more in-depth risk assessments, including on-the-ground assessments. This will serve to uplift worker and community voices so that the unique risks experienced by different demographic groups can be integrated into efforts to address and prevent labor rights abuses.  
• Zinc production occurs in both vertically integrated operations – where the refiner is present at the site of mineral mining – as well as in contexts where mining and smelting/refining are separate. In disperse supply chains, where mining and refining are not integrated operations, each node may be owned and operated by a different company and worksites may be located in different countries. These dispersed supply chains typically feature additional traders or other middlemen. Smelting and refining plants that are not integrated with specific mining operations typically source zinc from many upstream mines, traders, and aggregators or other processors, often based in different countries.¹ Joint Due Diligence Standard Copper, Lead, Molybdenum, for Nickel and Zinc. The Copper Mark, 2021. coppermark.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Joint-Due-Diligence-Standard_v3_26AUG22-1.pdf.   Traceability systems in zinc supply chain should be designed based on an accurate understanding of the degree of vertical integration present.  
• The presence of informal artisanal and small-scale mines poses the highest risk for child labor and exacerbates traceability challenges in zinc supply chains. After conducting supply chain mapping and discovery, companies should identify origins where artisanal mining is prevalent to better understand the root causes of child labor risk. This will help inform potential remediation strategies.  
• Traceability systems should be feasible in the context of artisanal mines, when relevant. Many of these smaller mining operations may have less administrative capacity and a lower capacity to engage in higher-input traceability efforts without pre-engagement, such as significant training and on-boarding efforts. Traceability efforts should be developed with an understanding of the capacity of relevant suppliers in mind – particularly smaller-scale mining sites. 
• Like other minerals, zinc goes through multiple points of transformation and aggregation. Traceability approaches in the sector should account for these points of aggregation, such as via the use of mid-tier gatekeeper due diligence at key control points such as smelters.   

• The U.S. Department of State has noted the risk of forced labor in zinc production in Xinjiang, China.²ⁱⁱXinjiang Supply Chain Business Advisory. U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of the Treasury, U.S. Department of Commerce, and U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2020, home.treasury.gov/system/files/126/20200701_xinjiang_advisory.pdf.   
• The U.S. Department of Labor has identified the risk of child labor in the production of zinc in Bolivia.³List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5746&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.     
• Civil society groups have reported child labor in family zinc mining businesses in Bolivia.⁴“A Swiss company profits from child labour and perilous conditions in a Bolivian mine.” Freedom Collaborative, 2020, freedomcollaborative.org/newsletter-archive/a-swiss-company-profits-from-child-labour-and-perilous-conditions-in-a-bolivian-mine.  
• Zinc is an industrial mineral extractive that is mined; data suggests that, in general, migrant workers are employed in the extractive sector. Temporary migrant workers in the mining sector are vulnerable to labor rights abuses due to poor working and living conditions, lack of access to health care, lack of unionization, and unfair treatment compared to local workers.⁵Coderre-Proulx, Mylène, et al. International Migrant Workers in the Mining Sector. International Labour Organization, 2016, www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_protect/—protrav/—migrant/documents/publication/wcms_538488.pdf.   
• According to the International Labour Organization, women represent up to a third of the workforce in the informal artisanal and small-scale mining sector. They are exposed to various risks, including hazardous work, sexual harassment and exploitation, and deceptive recruitment.⁶Women in mining: Towards gender equality. International Labour Organization, 2021, www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_dialogue/—sector/documents/publication/wcms_821061.pdf.  
• Third-party labor recruiters are used to recruit migrant workers in the mining sector.⁷ Coderre-Proulx, Mylène, et al. International Migrant Workers in the Mining Sector. International Labour Organization, 2016, www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_protect/—protrav/—migrant/documents/publication/wcms_538488.pdf.   

• Although only about one percent of global zinc mining occurs in small-scale mines,⁸Joint Due Diligence Standard Copper, Lead, Molybdenum, for Nickel and Zinc. The Copper Mark, 2021. coppermark.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Joint-Due-Diligence-Standard_v3_26AUG22-1.pdf.   small-scale mining takes place in about 80 countries with a global workforce of about 100 million miners.⁹Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining. The World Bank, 2013, www.worldbank.org/en/topic/extractiveindustries/brief/artisanal-and-small-scale-mining.   While there is limited information about zinc production specifically, general data from the mining industry indicates that small suppliers make up a significant part of supply chains. In Bolivia’s zinc industry, for example, mining is mostly done by family businesses that supply large buyers through cooperatives.¹⁰“A Swiss company profits from child labour and perilous conditions in a Bolivian mine.” Freedom Collaborative, 2020, freedomcollaborative.org/newsletter-archive/a-swiss-company-profits-from-child-labour-and-perilous-conditions-in-a-bolivian-mine.   
• Artisanal and small-scale zinc mining businesses sell the ores through cooperatives and/or traders,¹¹“A Swiss company profits from child labour and perilous conditions in a Bolivian mine.” Freedom Collaborative, 2020, freedomcollaborative.org/newsletter-archive/a-swiss-company-profits-from-child-labour-and-perilous-conditions-in-a-bolivian-mine.   which likely leads to the aggregation of zinc ores from multiple sources. Additionally, zinc undergoes multiple steps of transformation after mining that provide opportunities for co-mingling, including roasting, leaching and purification, electrolysis, melting, and casting.¹²“How is zinc produced?” Nystar, www.nyrstar.com/products/zinc-zinc-alloys/how-is-zinc-produced.   
• Zinc supply chains are opaque, as there are different layers of middlemen and a lack of information about downstream actors.¹³Onstad, Eric. “Ex-Glencore traders aim to cut out middlemen with online concentrate platform,” Reuters, July 4 2017, www.reuters.com/article/metals-trading-concentrates/ex-glencore-traders-aim-to-cut-out-middlemen-with-online-concentrate-platform-idUSL8N1JR45S.    
• Zinc is associated with other minerals, such as silver, copper, cadmium, and lead; these metals are removed from zinc during the smelting process. Indium, germanium, and cobalt may also be removed from zinc ore.¹⁴Joint Due Diligence Standard Copper, Lead, Molybdenum, for Nickel and Zinc. The Copper Mark, 2021. coppermark.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Joint-Due-Diligence-Standard_v3_26AUG22-1.pdf.   

• At artisanal and small-scale mines, there is evidence that children work to support their families.¹⁵“A Swiss company profits from child labour and perilous conditions in a Bolivian mine.” Freedom Collaborative, 2020, freedomcollaborative.org/newsletter-archive/a-swiss-company-profits-from-child-labour-and-perilous-conditions-in-a-bolivian-mine. 

Zinc ore is mined at underground mines and open pit mines.¹⁶Genderen, Eric V., et al. “A global life cycle assessment for primary zinc production.” The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2016, link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-016-1131-8.   The raw ores are then moved to processing plants¹⁷Tao, Ming, et al. “Life cycle assessment on lead–zinc ore mining and beneficiation in China.” Journal of Cleaner Production, 2019, doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.117833.  for beneficiation and smelting. This produces refined zinc,¹⁸Genderen, Eric V., et al. “A global life cycle assessment for primary zinc production.” The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2016, link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-016-1131-8.  which is transported and sold to customers.¹⁹Gorner, Stephan, et al. “The mine-to-market value chain: A hidden gem.” McKinsey & Company, 2020, www.mckinsey.com/industries/metals-and-mining/our-insights/the-mine-to-market-value-chain-a-hidden-gem.  Traders are involved at different stages, from the purchasing of zinc ores after mining to the selling of processed zinc to customers.²⁰“Zinc Trading.” Imperium Commodity Search, imperiumcs.com/commodity-markets/metals-and-mining/zinc/#:~:text=Zinc%20traders%20work%20at%20various,if%20they%20have%20production%20facilities.  Given that the primary use of zinc is in the galvanizing process to protect steel and iron in construction materials and automotive and consumer goods,²¹Genderen, Eric V., et al. “A global life cycle assessment for primary zinc production.” The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2016, link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-016-1131-8.  it is commonly sold to industrial customers, such as metal manufacturers.  

• 1
   Joint Due Diligence Standard Copper, Lead, Molybdenum, for Nickel and Zinc. The Copper Mark, 2021. coppermark.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Joint-Due-Diligence-Standard_v3_26AUG22-1.pdf.  
• 2
  ⁱⁱXinjiang Supply Chain Business Advisory. U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of the Treasury, U.S. Department of Commerce, and U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2020, home.treasury.gov/system/files/126/20200701_xinjiang_advisory.pdf.  
• 3
  List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5746&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.    
• 4
  “A Swiss company profits from child labour and perilous conditions in a Bolivian mine.” Freedom Collaborative, 2020, freedomcollaborative.org/newsletter-archive/a-swiss-company-profits-from-child-labour-and-perilous-conditions-in-a-bolivian-mine.  
• 5
  Coderre-Proulx, Mylène, et al. International Migrant Workers in the Mining Sector. International Labour Organization, 2016, www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_protect/—protrav/—migrant/documents/publication/wcms_538488.pdf.  
• 6
  Women in mining: Towards gender equality. International Labour Organization, 2021, www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_dialogue/—sector/documents/publication/wcms_821061.pdf.  
• 7
   Coderre-Proulx, Mylène, et al. International Migrant Workers in the Mining Sector. International Labour Organization, 2016, www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_protect/—protrav/—migrant/documents/publication/wcms_538488.pdf.  
• 8
  Joint Due Diligence Standard Copper, Lead, Molybdenum, for Nickel and Zinc. The Copper Mark, 2021. coppermark.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Joint-Due-Diligence-Standard_v3_26AUG22-1.pdf.  
• 9
  Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining. The World Bank, 2013, www.worldbank.org/en/topic/extractiveindustries/brief/artisanal-and-small-scale-mining.  
• 10
  “A Swiss company profits from child labour and perilous conditions in a Bolivian mine.” Freedom Collaborative, 2020, freedomcollaborative.org/newsletter-archive/a-swiss-company-profits-from-child-labour-and-perilous-conditions-in-a-bolivian-mine.  
• 11
  “A Swiss company profits from child labour and perilous conditions in a Bolivian mine.” Freedom Collaborative, 2020, freedomcollaborative.org/newsletter-archive/a-swiss-company-profits-from-child-labour-and-perilous-conditions-in-a-bolivian-mine.  
• 12
  “How is zinc produced?” Nystar, www.nyrstar.com/products/zinc-zinc-alloys/how-is-zinc-produced. 
• 13
  Onstad, Eric. “Ex-Glencore traders aim to cut out middlemen with online concentrate platform,” Reuters, July 4 2017, www.reuters.com/article/metals-trading-concentrates/ex-glencore-traders-aim-to-cut-out-middlemen-with-online-concentrate-platform-idUSL8N1JR45S.  
• 14
  Joint Due Diligence Standard Copper, Lead, Molybdenum, for Nickel and Zinc. The Copper Mark, 2021. coppermark.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/Joint-Due-Diligence-Standard_v3_26AUG22-1.pdf.  
• 15
  “A Swiss company profits from child labour and perilous conditions in a Bolivian mine.” Freedom Collaborative, 2020, freedomcollaborative.org/newsletter-archive/a-swiss-company-profits-from-child-labour-and-perilous-conditions-in-a-bolivian-mine. 
• 16
  Genderen, Eric V., et al. “A global life cycle assessment for primary zinc production.” The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2016, link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-016-1131-8.  
• 17
  Tao, Ming, et al. “Life cycle assessment on lead–zinc ore mining and beneficiation in China.” Journal of Cleaner Production, 2019, doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.117833. 
• 18
  Genderen, Eric V., et al. “A global life cycle assessment for primary zinc production.” The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2016, link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-016-1131-8. 
• 19
  Gorner, Stephan, et al. “The mine-to-market value chain: A hidden gem.” McKinsey & Company, 2020, www.mckinsey.com/industries/metals-and-mining/our-insights/the-mine-to-market-value-chain-a-hidden-gem. 
• 20
  “Zinc Trading.” Imperium Commodity Search, imperiumcs.com/commodity-markets/metals-and-mining/zinc/#:~:text=Zinc%20traders%20work%20at%20various,if%20they%20have%20production%20facilities. 
• 21
  Genderen, Eric V., et al. “A global life cycle assessment for primary zinc production.” The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2016, link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11367-016-1131-8. 
• 22
  List of exporters for the selected product in 2021 Product : 2608 Zinc ores and concentrates. ITC Trade Map, www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c2608%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1 .