Grapes

Table of Contents

Child labor and forced labor risks have been documented in grape cultivation and harvesting in multiple countries globally. Due to the seasonal demand and labor-intensive nature of grape harvesting, grape producers tend to require large influxes of workers, creating a pull for migrant workers who are often vulnerable populations. However, the specific risks facing workers and the demographics of vulnerable worker populations vary significantly across source countries, so downstream companies sourcing or utilizing grapes should conduct careful mapping to discover the identities and locations of any grape-producing farms in their supply chains. That mapping information should be used to prioritize further due diligence, including efforts to hear directly from migrant workers about their experiences.
Most grape producers selling grapes into global markets are commercial establishments with the size and administrative capacity to facilitate the implementation of traceability systems, including technology-driven approaches. While smaller grape producers exist, they tend to sell grapes for local consumption rather than in global supply chains.
Grapes tend to have less transformation throughout the supply chain. In fresh fruit supply chains, this can allow for traceability approaches that create unique identifiers for batches of grapes and can facilitate the most robust methods of product tracking, such as full identity preservation. However, even in the case of fresh grapes for global markets, supply chains include producers, packers, exporters, and distributors. Therefore, the interoperability of systems is important to ensure information about the origin of products remains transparent for downstream companies, consumers and regulators.
Where grapes are part of more complex supply chains involving significant aggregation and transformation such as in juice and wine production, traceability methods that account for this mixing such as mass balance and controlled blending are likely to be more effective approaches.

Forced Labor or Trafficking in Persons cited by U.S. Government

Child Labor cited by U.S. Government

Risk of Forced Labor or Trafficking in Persons cited by other source

Risk of Child Labor cited by other source

Documented presence of migrant workers

Documented presence of other vulnerable workers

Documented presence or significant likelihood of third-party labor recruiters

The U.S. Department of State has cited risks of forced labor and deceptive recruitment practices for seasonal workers in large grape vineyards, such as those found in France.¹
The U.S. Department of Labor has identified child labor in the production of grapes in Argentina and Colombia.²
Other sources have identified forced labor and labor exploitation in grape production in Italy and Brazil.³
Other sources have noted child labor in the U.S. grape sector as well.⁴
Migrant workers and refugees have been noted in grape production. There is some evidence that workers in South Africa, particularly migrant workers, in grape cultivation are vulnerable to forced labor.⁵ In Chile, labor on fruit farms, including vineyards, draws internal migrants, many of whom are engaged seasonally and are often under outsourced or sub-contracted arrangements via labor brokers.⁶ Migrant workers in Italian vineyards from countries including Albania, Romania, Morocco, Poland, India, and Bulgaria reportedly experience underpayment of wages.⁷
About half of the seasonal agricultural workers are estimated to be women. Some sources have noted increased vulnerability to exploitation for women and poor indigenous workers in the sector.⁸ Refugees, another vulnerable group, have also been identified on grape farms in Turkey⁹ and Lebanon.¹⁰ In some cases, these refugees reportedly experienced abusive conditions and earned wages well below the minimum wage.¹¹
Many migrant workers are employed by temporary employment agencies, which increases their risk of exploitation.¹² There is anecdotal reporting of migrant workers from Latin American countries working in the grape sectors of France and Spain who have been engaged by specialized labor recruiting services.¹³ Similarly, in the United States, a proliferation of licensed labor contractors in the United States, many of whom may not be familiar with the nuances of vineyard work, compete for a pool of migrant laborers.¹⁴

Large numbers of dispersed, unorganized, or informal small producers or other worksites

Multiple points of aggregation, co-mingling, and/or transformation across supply chain

Complex/opaque supply chains and/or lack of vertical integration

High degree of flexibility in procurement practices of downstream entities

Most producers for global export markets are large-scale commercial operations. Although operating at a commercialized scale, there is also a large number of small and medium-size farms in grape production, fragmented amongst many owners. In California, 881,000 acres are dedicated to viticulture as of 2021, however, some of the largest grape growers maintain only 1,000 or less than 1,000 acres.¹⁵
Year-long demand for grapes in developed countries has created seasonal global supply chains; for example, once winter hits California, the United States and Canada turn to Peru to source their grapes.¹⁶ Points of aggregation occur in the stages of packing, initial shipping, transhipping at ports of connection, and buying at the destination terminal, where shipped goods are stored and eventually procured for sale.¹⁷
In the wine industry, a fragmented array of grape producers maintains flexible procurement contracts with many wineries, reducing the capacity for oversight across the value chain and preserving an unstable demand structure. These contracts codify a wide range of unique discretionary agreements, including the duration of buyer-supplier relationships, the price and quantity of fruit, how to account for unpredictable weather and other supply shocks, and which services are provided by whom.¹⁸
Procurement practices of upstream entities for grape products (including raisins and wine), such as wholesale distributors, typically operate on a ‘just-in-time’ system in an attempt to align with trends in market demand and minimize transportation and shipping costs.¹⁹

Scale or nature of risk is strongly associated with certain types of suppliers/entities

Scale or nature of risk varies significantly based on geographic area of production

Scale or nature of risk is present across multiple tiers or nodes of supply chain (including in associated downstream or upstream goods)

Although labor risks have only been identified in a few grape-producing countries, these risks are associated with the labor-intensive nature of grape production and are not specific to any specific geographic area.
Labor rights risks are concentrated in the agricultural production/harvest node.

Grapes may be sold to retailers as whole fruit. These grapes are packed either on the premises or at a separate plant and, after transport, are sold fresh via retailers or wholesalers.²⁰

Grapes may also be sold directly or via an aggregator/trader to a processing facility, where they are processed into products such as raisins and grape juice.²¹

Wine has a distinct supply chain. Grapes grown for wine-making purposes are shipped to a wine producer (or processed into wine onsite at the vineyard).²²

Cultivation and Harvesting

Packing

Transport

Wholesale and Retail

Food and Beverage

Grapes are sold for personal consumption. Some grapes are used in the production of alcoholic beverages and other processed food and drinks.

China²⁴
Italy
Spain
United States of America
France
Turkey
India
Chile
Argentina
South Africa

Fairtrade International (Segregated/Bulk Commodity)Grape traceability using tags Grape traceability using blockchain

1
U.S. Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons. 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report. 2022, www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/.
2
U.S. Department of Labor. 2020 Department of Labor List of Goods Produced by Forced or Child Labor. Sept. 2020, www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/child_labor_reports/tda2019/2020_TVPRA_List_Online_Final.pdf.
3
Pianigiani, G. “A Woman’s Death Sorting Grapes Exposes Italy’s ‘Slavery.’” The New York Times, 11 April 2017, www.nytimes.com/2017/04/11/world/europe/a-womans-death-sorting-grapes-exposes-italys-slavery.html; Alves, T. “Brazilian wineries involved in a slave labor scandal.” Brazil Reports, 7 March 2023, brazilreports.com/brazilian-wineries-involved-in-a-slave-labor-scandal/4129.
4
Stock, Steven and Paredes, David. “Child Labor: Young Hands Picking Our Food.” NBC Bay Area. 2012. https://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/local/children-in-the-field-picking-our-food/1923804/; Fields of Peril. Human Rights Watch. 2011. www.hrw.org/report/2010/05/05/fields-peril/child-labor-us-agriculture.
5
Visser, Margaret and Ferrer, Stuart. Farm Workers’ Living and Working Conditions in South Africa: key trends, emergent issues, and underlying and structural problems. The International Labor Organization. 2015. www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—africa/documents/publication/wcms_385959.pdf; Ripe with Abuse: Human Rights Conditions in South Africa’s Fruit and Wine Industries. Human Rights Watch. 2011. www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/safarm0811webwcover.pdf.
6
Marianela Jarroud. “Seasonal Agricultural Workers Left Out of Chilean Boom.” Inter Press Service. 2014. www.ipsnews.net/2014/05/seasonal-agricultural-workers-left-chilean-boom/.
7
Corrrado, Alessandra. Migrant Crop Pickers in Italy and Spain. Heinrich Böll Stiftung. 2017. www.boell.de/sites/default/files/e-paper_migrant-crop-pickers-in-italy-and-spain.pdf?dimension1=division_ip.
8
Marianela Jarroud. “Seasonal Agricultural Workers Left Out of Chilean Boom.” Inter Press Service. 2014. www.ipsnews.net/2014/05/seasonal-agricultural-workers-left-chilean-boom/.
9
Michaelson, Ruth. “Syrian workers exploited on Turkish grape farms.” Radio France International. 2012. rfi.fr/middle-east/20121002-syrian-workers-exploited-turkish-grape-farms.
10
International Labour Organization. Refugee crisis: Child Labour in agriculture on the rise in Lebanon. July 12, 2016. www.ilo.org/beirut/media-centre/fs/WCMS_496725/lang–en/index.htm.
11
Michaelson, Ruth. “Syrian workers exploited on Turkish grape farms.” Radio France International. 2012. rfi.fr/middle-east/20121002-syrian-workers-exploited-turkish-grape-farms.
12
Corrrado, Alessandra. “Migrant Crop Pickers in Italy and Spain.” Heinrich Böll Stiftung. 2017. www.boell.de/sites/default/files/e-paper_migrant-crop-pickers-in-italy-and-spain.pdf?dimension1=division_ip.
13
Donaldson, Maggy. “Advocates say EU loophole leaves Latin American workers in legal limbo.” Aljazeera America. 2015. america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/8/2/latin-american-migrant-workers-in-spain.html.
14
Donaldson, Maggy. “Advocates say EU loophole leaves Latin American workers in legal limbo.” Aljazeera America. 2015. america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/8/2/latin-american-migrant-workers-in-spain.html.
15
Morris, Roger. “Meet the Grape Growers of Napa Valley.” Wine Enthusiast Magazine, 4 Apr. 2013, www.winemag.com/2013/04/04/meet-the-grape-farmers-of-napa-valley/.
16
Edmiston, Jake. “What Your Fruit Has Been Through: A Green Grape’s Journey Through a Global Supply Chain on Edge.” Financial Post, 7 Feb. 2022, financialpost.com/news/economy/what-your-fruit-has-been-through-a-green-grapes-journey-through-a-global-supply-chain-on-edge.
17
Edmiston, Jake. “What Your Fruit Has Been Through: A Green Grape’s Journey Through a Global Supply Chain on Edge.” Financial Post, 7 Feb. 2022, financialpost.com/news/economy/what-your-fruit-has-been-through-a-green-grapes-journey-through-a-global-supply-chain-on-edge.
18
Morris, Roger. “Meet the Grape Growers of Napa Valley.” Wine Enthusiast Magazine, 4 Apr. 2013, www.winemag.com/2013/04/04/meet-the-grape-farmers-of-napa-valley/.
19
Pepitone, Sarah. “Global Supply Chain Issues Plague the Wine Industry.” Wine Enthusiast Magazine, 25 Oct., 2021, https://www.wineenthusiast.com/culture/industry-news/wine-shipping-delays/.
20
Edmiston, J. “What your fruit has been through: A green grape’s journey through a global supply chain on edge.” Financial Post, 7 Feb 2022, financialpost.com/news/economy/what-your-fruit-has-been-through-a-green-grapes-journey-through-a-global-supply-chain-on-edge.
21
Ravi Kumar, KN, Babu, SC. “Value chain management under COVID-19: responses and lessons from grape production in India,” J Soc Econ Dev, 24 Mar 2021, 23(Suppl 3):1-23. link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40847-020-00138-6
22
Wine Supply Chain Traceability. GS1, 2008. www.gs1us.org/DesktopModules/Bring2mind/DMX/Download.aspx?Command=Core_Download&EntryId=660&language=en-US&PortalId=0&TabId=134.
23
List of exporters for the selected product in 2021. Product: 080610 Fresh grapes. www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c080610%7c%7c%7c6%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1.
24
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Crops and livestock products. 2021. www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL.

Funding is provided by the United States Department of Labor under cooperative agreement number IL‐35805. 100 percent of the total costs of the project or program is financed with federal funds, for a total of USD 4,000,000. This material does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United States Department of Labor, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the United States Government

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Supply Chain Characteristics that Impact Traceability

Traceability Takeaways

Nature of Labor Rights Risk/Vulnerable Workers

Features of Production and Supply Chain

Distribution of Labor Risk in Various Production Areas

Linked Upstream and Downstream Risks

Risk in Nodes in Grape Production

Associated Downstream Goods and Consumer Sectors

Top Global Countries

Examples & Resources: Traceability Efforts Associated With Grapes

Footnotes