Coffee

Table of Contents

Forced labor and child labor risks are present in the coffee sector in multiple geographic regions around the world. Therefore, companies need to understand the geographic footprint of their coffee sourcing to enable a more comprehensive understanding of the specific risks that may be present in given countries and sub-regions. The widespread nature of potential risks does not support a traceability solution that aims to screen out coffee sourced from a limited number of high-risk locations. While risk is present at numerous nodes throughout the supply chain, the primary labor rights risks exist at the farm level. This is particularly evident during the harvest season, when large numbers of temporary workers join the workforce on coffee farms. For traceability systems to provide insights into labor practices in the coffee supply chain, it is critical that they can capture information up to the farm level.
Most coffee producers are smallholder farmers. A significant portion of them lack access to capital for the technology needed to implement intensive forms of traceability and/or the administrative capacity for bureaucratic implementation. Traceability systems should incorporate assistance for small-scale producers so that traceability efforts do not have the unintended consequence of further marginalizing smallholders.
Because coffee is a crop with a narrow peak harvest window, many producers rely on the influx of large numbers of temporary migrant workers for labor during the harvest season. Migrant workers are likely to work on multiple coffee plantations, following migration patterns in a specific country or region. Therefore, traceability systems that can shed light on the geography (region, country) of such areas may provide a suitable level of information needed to inform program designs or prioritize further risk assessment on the ground.

Forced Labor or Trafficking in Persons cited by U.S. Government

Child Labor cited by U.S. Government

Risk of Forced Labor or Trafficking in Persons cited by other source

Risk of Child Labor cited by other source

Documented presence of migrant workers

Documented presence of vulnerable workers

Documented presence or significant likelihood of third-party labor recruiters

The U.S. Department of Labor has identified the presence of forced labor in coffee production in two countries, including Brazil (the world’s top coffee producer and exporter) and Côte d’Ivoire. ¹
The U.S. Department of Labor has noted the use of child labor in coffee supply chains in 17 countries: Brazil, Columbia, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Guinea, Honduras, Kenya, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Uganda, and Vietnam. Of these 17 countries, four are among the top ten global exporters of coffee.²
Migrant labor is present in coffee production in numerous geographic locations. Migrant workers may experience local language barriers and a lack of support systems, making them more vulnerable to labor abuses.³
Coffee farms often rely on labor intermediaries or labor brokers to recruit workers for the labor-intensive harvest season and to counter labor shortages.⁴

Large numbers of dispersed, unorganized, or informal small producers or other worksites

Multiple points of aggregation, co-mingling, and/or transformation across supply chain

High degree of flexibility in procurement practices of downstream entities

Complex/opaque supply chains and/or lack of vertical integration

Smallholders produce the majority of the world’s coffee – an estimated 80 percent. Mid-sized farms and large estates account for the other 20 percent.⁵
Single-origin coffee is sourced seasonally from one specific country or region. In some cases, it can come from a specific farm, plantation, or estate. Coffee blends are comprised of a mix of coffee beans grown in numerous different geographic locations to achieve particular flavor profiles. While both single origin coffee and coffee blends can be traceable back to origin, single origin coffee is predicated on traceability, at least to the country level.⁶

Scale or nature of risk is present across multiple tiers or nodes of supply chain (including in associated downstream or upstream goods)

Scale or nature of risk varies significantly based on geographic area of production

Scale or nature of risk is strongly associated with certain types of suppliers/entities

The scale and nature of labor risk does not vary significantly based on geographic area of production or types of suppliers/entities. However, mechanized coffee harvesting, like that practiced by some large farms in areas of Brazil, may reduce labor risks during the harvest season.⁷
The risk of forced labor exists along multiple nodes of the supply chain, though labor trafficking is most likely to occur during the harvesting stage.⁸

The harvest season presents the highest risk of labor abuses in the coffee value chain. Many coffee varieties are harvested via “selective picking,” or only harvesting ripe beans. This harvesting technique is labor-intensive and not easily mechanized (though it has been in some regions). Selective picking requires a significant number of laborers to pick the ripe coffee beans at the right time. To accommodate the high demand for labor, many producers rely on an influx of temporary migrant workers, who may be vulnerable to labor exploitation.

After the beans are dried, hulled, sorted, and milled, they are loaded onto ships for export.⁹ Though the risks to laborers’ rights are most concentrated in the early stages, they also exist in the processing and transportation stages, where heavy labor is often involved in the drying, hulling, and milling processes.

Cultivation and Harvesting

Drying, Hulling, Milling, Sorting

Transportation

Roasting

Wholesale and Retail

Food and Beverage

Coffee beans are often used in the production of caffeinated drinks sold at the retail level.

Food and Beverage

Coffee beans are sold whole to consumers to grind themselves, as well as in ground form. Coffee beans and ground coffee are also sold to small and large retailers from coffee shops to fast food establishments.

Brazil¹¹
Vietnam
Colombia
Indonesia
Ethiopia
Peru
Honduras
India
Uganda
Guatemala

Rainforest Alliance (Identity Preservation)Rainforest Alliance (Bulk Commodity)Fairtrade International (Segregated/Bulk Commodity)

1
List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5746&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.
2
List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 23 June 2021, https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5746&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10.
3
Primer on Recruitment-Related Risks in the Latin American Coffee Sector. Verite, 2022, verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Verite_COFFEE-Project-Toolkit_-Recruitment-Related-Risks-in-Coffee-Sector_EN_FINAL.pdf.
4
Primer on Recruitment-Related Risks in the Latin American Coffee Sector. Verite, 2022, verite.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Verite_COFFEE-Project-Toolkit_-Recruitment-Related-Risks-in-Coffee-Sector_EN_FINAL.pdf.
5
Coffee Farmers. Fair Trade Foundation, https://www.fairtrade.org.uk/Farmers-and-Workers/Coffee.
6
Shuayre, Anna. “Single Origin Vs. Blends: Ultimate Guide.” The Coffee Post, 9 March 2022, https://thecoffeepost.com.au/single-origin-vs-blends. Minchin, Joshua. “Single Origin Coffee: What is it and why are consumers opting for it?” New Food Magazine, 22 February 2022, https://www.newfoodmagazine.com/article/161957/single-origin-coffee-what-is-it-and-why-are-consumers-opting-for-it/.
7
Farmworker Protections and Labor Conditions in Brazil’s Coffee Sector. Catholic Relief Services, 2016, coffeelands.crs.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/CRS-Policy-Brief-Farmworker-Protections-and-Labor-Conditions-in-Brazil%E2%80%99s-Coffee-Sector.pdf.
8
Commodity Atlas: Coffee. Verité, www.verite.org/project/coffee-3/#_ftn15.
9
10 Steps from Seed to Cup. National Coffee Association, https://www.ncausa.org/About-Coffee/10-Steps-from-Seed-to-Cup.
10
List of exporters for the selected product in 2021. 0901 Coffee, whether or not roasted or decaffeinated; coffee husks and skins; coffee substitutes containing coffee in any proportion. ITC Trade Map, www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c0901%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c%7c2%7c1%7c1%7c1.
11
Crops and livestock products. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL.

Funding is provided by the United States Department of Labor under cooperative agreement number IL‐35805. 100 percent of the total costs of the project or program is financed with federal funds, for a total of USD 4,000,000. This material does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United States Department of Labor, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the United States Government