Bricks

Table of Contents

Forced labor and child labor are widespread problems across brick production sites around the world. Labor risks in brick production are often associated with debt bondage, including inherited or generational debt bondage, particularly in South Asia. Bricks produced with forced and child labor are not likely to enter global supply chains and are more likely to be used for construction near the location of production. Companies pursuing construction projects in regions with documented labor risks in brick production should work with construction contractors to identify the sources of the bricks that they use. Where necessary, full assessments of individual suppliers and specific production regions should be carried out to assess labor conditions, workforce demographics, and community dynamics at specific worksites or regions.

Forced Labor or Trafficking in Persons cited by U.S. Government

Child Labor cited by U.S. Government

Risk of Forced Labor or Trafficking in Persons cited by other source

Risk of Child Labor cited by other source

Documented presence of migrant workers

Documented presence of other vulnerable workers

Documented presence or significant likelihood of third-party labor recruiters

The U.S. Department of Labor has noted the presence of forced labor in the brick sector in Afghanistan, Burma, Cambodia, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan, North Korea, and Russia.¹ Similarly, the U.S. Department of State has identified forced labor or trafficking in persons in brick making in Afghanistan, Angola, Argentina, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Malawi, Nepal, Pakistan, Peru, Russia, South Sudan, and Vietnam.²
The U.S. Department of Labor has identified child labor in the brick sector in Afghanistan, Argentina, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Burma, Cambodia, China, Ecuador, Egypt, India, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru, Uganda, and Vietnam.³ The U.S. Department of State has also identified child labor in brickmaking in Angola, Cambodia, India, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru, South Sudan, Sudan, , and Vietnam.⁴
News sources have reported forced labor in brick kilns in Pakistan, often in the form of debt bondage.⁵
Sources have reported child labor, including forced child labor, in brick kilns in Cambodia and Pakistan.⁶
Migrant workers from India are present in the brick production sector in Bangladesh and Nepal.⁷ Seasonal workers also migrate internally within India to work in brick kilns.⁸ In China, an estimated 170 million internal migrants are at risk of forced labor, many of whom work in the brick industry.⁹ Reports also indicate that migrant workers from Bolivia may be forced to work in brick making in Argentina, Brazil, and Chile.¹⁰
Women who work in brick kilns are at particular risk of inhumane working conditions and sexual harassment.¹¹
Reports indicate the presence of third-party labor recruiters across South Asia. These middlemen frequently source workers from other countries, as well as from poorer regions within each country. They typically charge recruitment fees and may claim a portion of workers’ wages.¹²

Large numbers of dispersed, unorganized, or informal small producers or other worksites

Multiple points of aggregation, co-mingling, and/or transformation across supply chain

Complex/opaque supply chains and/or lack of vertical integration

High degree of flexibility in procurement practices of downstream entities

In Bangladesh, more than 7,000 locally operated kilns are reportedly dispersed throughout the country, producing more than 27 billion bricks per year.¹³ In India, there are between 150,000 and 200,000 kilns operated by both small and large producers that generate more than 260 billion bricks per year.¹⁴
Bricks are typically sold directly to specific building projects in the region.¹⁵

Scale or nature of risk is present across multiple tiers or nodes of supply chain (including in associated downstream or upstream goods)

Scale or nature of risk varies significantly based on geographic area of production

Scale or nature of risk is strongly associated with certain types of suppliers/entities

The risk of forced labor and child labor is present in both small and large production facilities.¹⁶
Labor risk is present at the brick forming and cutting node and at the firing and cooling node of the brick supply chain.¹⁷

The brick value chain contains four main nodes: mining and storage, forming and cutting, firing and cooling, and storage and distribution. The mining and storage node of the supply chain begins with the blending of raw materials (typically crushed clay and shale) and includes the subsequent storing of the clay in a temperature-controlled facility prior to brick formation and further processing. Once the clay is stored, brick manufacturers use processing machines to form and cut the bricks into the desired weights and shapes. The formed and prepared bricks are then put into a kiln; this process typically takes between ten and 40 hours, depending on the type of kiln, level of insolation, type of fuel, and firing temperature. After the bricks have been fired at some specified temperature for a prescribed period of time, the process of cooling begins. This process takes between ten and 24 hours depending on the desired result. The cooled bricks are sorted based on internal quality, size, and color before being put into storage.¹⁸ Bricks are often made-to-order for specific customers and are thus immediately distributed once the cooling process is completed. Bricks are typically transported by truck or ship depending on their destinations. Forced labor and child labor risk are highest at the forming and cutting and firing and cooling nodes of the supply chain.

Brick Formation, Drying, and Cutting

Firing and Cooling

Clay Mining

Storage and Distribution

Sand is used to form silica, which can be made into bricks.

Construction

Bricks are typically used to construct structures, including commercial buildings, homes, and walls.

Brick kiln monitoring using satellite imagery

1
List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 28 September 2022, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5754&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10&combine=&page=1.
2
U.S Department of State. 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report, 2022. www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/.
3
List of Goods Produced by Child or Forced Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, 28 September 2022, www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab/reports/child-labor/list-of-goods?tid=All&field_exp_good_target_id=5754&field_exp_exploitation_type_target_id_1=All&items_per_page=10&combine=&page=1.
4
U.S Department of State. 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report, 2022. www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/.
5
Ghani, Faras. “The spiralling debt trapping Pakistan’s brick kiln workers.” Al Jazeera, 21 Oct 2019, www.aljazeera.com/features/2019/10/21/the-spiralling-debt-trapping-pakistans-brick-kiln-workers.
6
Blomberg, Matt. “Expose reveals child labor in Cambodian brick kilns despite crackdown,” Reuters, 12 Feb 2020,www.reuters.com/article/us-cambodia-construction-child-labour/expose-reveals-child-labor-in-cambodian-brick-kilns-despite-crackdown-idUSKBN20702Y; Ghani, Faras. “The spiralling debt trapping Pakistan’s brick kiln workers,” Al Jazeera, 21 Oct 2019,www.aljazeera.com/features/2019/10/21/the-spiralling-debt-trapping-pakistans-brick-kiln-workers.
7
U.S Department of State. 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report, 2022. www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/.
8
U.S Department of State. 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report, 2022. www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/.
9
U.S Department of State. 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report, 2022. www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/.
10
U.S Department of State. 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report, 2022. www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/.
11
Ghani, Faras. “The spiralling debt trapping Pakistan’s brick kiln workers.” Al Jazeera, 21 Oct 2019, www.aljazeera.com/features/2019/10/21/the-spiralling-debt-trapping-pakistans-brick-kiln-workers.
12
International Labour Organization. Environment, Human Labour & Animal Welfare: Brick by Brick, 2017. www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/—ed_norm/—declaration/documents/publication/wcms_542925.pdf.
13
World Bank. Dirty Stacks, High Stakes: An Overview of Brick Sector in South Asia, 2020. documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/685751588227715919/pdf/Dirty-Stacks-High-Stakes-An-Overview-of-Brick-Sector-in-South-Asia.pdf.
14
ICIMOD. Burnt Clay Brick Sector in India, 2017. www.ccacoalition.org/sites/default/files/resources/Fact%20sheet%20brick%20sector%20India.pdf.
15
Naveen, Suriman. “Production and Marketing Network Chain of Brick Kiln Product: A Case Study of Hyderabad City,” International Journal of Managing Value and Supply Chains (IJMVSC) 7, no. 1 (2016). aircconline.com/ijmvsc/V7N1/7116ijmvsc03.pdf.
16
U.S Department of State. 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report, 2022. www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/.
17
U.S Department of State. 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report, 2022. www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/.
18
The Brick Industry Association. Technical Notes on Brick Construction, 2006. www.gobrick.com/media/file/9-manufacturing-of-brick.pdf.
19
List of exporters for the selected product in 2021. Product : 6902 Refractory bricks, blocks, tiles and similar refractory ceramic constructional goods (excluding those of siliceous fossil meals or similar siliceous earths). ITC Trade Map, 2021, www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7c%7c%7c%7c%7c6902%7c%7c%7c4%7c1%7c1%7c2%7c1%7c%7c2%7c1%7c%7c1.

Funding is provided by the United States Department of Labor under cooperative agreement number IL‐35805. 100 percent of the total costs of the project or program is financed with federal funds, for a total of USD 4,000,000. This material does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the United States Department of Labor, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the United States Government

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Supply Chain Characteristics that Impact Traceability

Traceability Takeaways

Nature of Labor Rights Risk/Vulnerable Workers

Features of Production and Supply Chain

Distribution of Labor Risk in Various Production Areas

Linked Upstream and Downstream Risks

Risk in Nodes in Brick Production

Associated Upstream Goods with Labor Risk

Associated Downstream Goods and Consumer Sectors

Top Global Countries

Examples & Resources: Traceability Efforts Associated With Bricks

Footnotes